Mental Preparation of the Athlete - Term Paper Example

ASSESSING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ANXIETY REDUCTION STRATEGIES FOR PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT AMONG BUDDING SOCCER TEAMS Introduction Sports psychology mainly deals with the mental preparation of the athlete, placing equal premium on both mental and bodily preparation. To date, it is acknowledged as a promising field in the arenas of both psychology and athletics. For majority of sophisticated, professional , recreational, and even teenage athletes, the importance of mental preparation cannot be overemphasized (rcn.com, 2005). Performance is thus viewed as a result of both mental and physical stamina and strength. Kolezynski (2005) proposes that just as an athlete has prepared for competition by exercising physical skills and by enhancing one’s strength and bodily endurance, the athlete must undertake equally rigorous training for mental preparation. To manage and improve performance among budding athletes, concrete techniques could be used while training them, including setting clear, short-term goals, fostering positive thoughts, and utilizing self-affirmations, imagery and negative thought stopping, among others (Kolezynski, 2005). Owing to the comprehensive scope of coverage of athletic events of our day, sports buffs may now easily understand the need and the gains which may be yielded from sports psychology (rcn.com, 2005). Mental preparation and training is found in the examples of skiers, divers, and gymnasts’ use of imagery – imaging their routines or tricks before they perform (rcn.com, 2005; Kolezynski, 2005). So many other examples may be cited, including Nancy Kerrigan’s use of sports psychology principles after she was maliciously attached so close to the 1994 Olympics; golfers and biathletes using relaxation techniques to decrease their heart rates and breathing to permit more accuracy in their shots; and basketball players utilizing a combination of goal setting and imagery to enhance their free throw performance (Kolezynski, 2005). Given that sports psychology has clear and tangible benefits for the budding athlete, the current study intends to propose a concrete performance development agenda for budding soccer athletes, drawing these measures from sports psychology principles. Review of Related Literature The ability to cope with pressure and anxiety is an integral part of sports, particularly among elite athletes (Hardy, Jones, & Gould, 1996; Orlick & Partington, 1988).  Researchers have reported that over 50 of consultations among athletes at an Olympic festival were related to stress or anxiety related problems (Murphy, 1988).  A great deal of research has been conducted examining the relationship between anxiety and performance within the field of athletics.  This paper will review the relevant research from a cognitive-behavioral perspective.  Included is a discussion of the research findings of the relationship between the two constructs.  In addition, the research that has examined the efficacy of cognitive-behavioral treatments is also discussed.  Although a great deal of information has been generated, the results are limited due problems in the terminology used by researchers.  Therefore, it is important to first examine the conceptualization of anxiety. Factors Affecting Athletic Performance Past empirical research were accomplished to relate anxiety to athletic performance. These have been difficulty to integrate the findings of these studies, due in part to the methodological issues, including the lack of clear operational definitions and theoretical construct. The distinction between state and trait anxiety needs to be clarified (Spielberger, 1966).  State anxiety can be considered to be more situational in nature and is frequently related to arousal of the autonomic nervous system. On the other hand, trait anxiety can be presented as a worldview that an individual uses when coping with situations in his or her environment (Spielberger, 1966). Trait anxiety exerts influence on performance; individuals with strong trait anxiety will give more attention to information associated to state anxiety (Hardy et al., 1996).   Past empirical research in the realm of sport and exercise psychology has suggested that individuals with strong trait anxiety who are state anxious respond to threat related information, while individuals with weak trait anxiety who are state anxious will tend to veer away from threat related information (MacLeod, 1990).  In the sports setting, athletes who are low trait anxious and undergo strong state anxiety would find it as helpful to achieving optimal performance; however, those persons with who are high trait anxious and experience state anxiety will find it an obstacle to athletic performance (Hardy et al., 1996). Cognitive-Behavioral Treatments in Athletics A substantial body of research indicates that it is crucial for athletes to have effective control over their anxiety, to ensure optimal performance, especially during competition. There is a significant difference noted between performance during practice and during competition, which suggests that most athletes, including soccer players, have a difficult time attaining the pat level of arousal (Butler, 1996). Progress in the arena of anxiety reduction has been made applicable to athletics. These studies have been successful in determining techniques utilized by the best performers with the eventual goal of controlling anxiety, including goal setting; though control strategies such as positive thinking and cognitive restructuring; relaxation techniques such as diaphragmatic breathing, imagery, and progressive muscle relaxation; and focusing on the task at hand (Gould, Eckland, & Jackson, 1993; Jones & Hardy, 1990; Orlick & Partington, 1988).   The Effectiveness of Cognitive-Behavioral Interventions among Athletes Previous research has assessed the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral strategies among various athletes. The treatment methods that have been utilized are varied content-wise and format-wise. Among the early studies in the topic was based on the work for anxiety reduction in clinical contexts. For instance, research administered with two female collegiate basketball players who are being trained in the usage of relaxation, imagery and cognitive restructuring yielded significant progress in concentration problems and in-game anxiety. Results suggest that these interventions enhanced performance by decreasing anxiety and increasing self-esteem (Meyers, Schleser, & Okwumabua, 1982). Recent research has yielded similar findings on the efficacy of cognitive-behavioral interventions in enhancing the performance of athletes. For instance, one study made use the same set of cognitive behavioral interventions in 7 weekly 2-hour group sessions. The results suggested that compared with the no treatment control group, the treatment group presented significant declines in anxiety levels (Holm, Beckwith, Ehde, & Tinius, 1996).  Moreover, a multiple baseline design has indicated that following a cognitive-behavioral intervention, there was a marked decrease in cognitive and somatic anxiety, and a noted increase in self-confidence (Savoy, 1997).   Despite this, the enhancement in self-confidence is partly attributed to the individualized nature of the treatment applied. This is similar to the findings of another study made with collegiate basketball players who were given treatment either as a group or a combination of group and individualized treatments. While there was a decrease in cognitive and somatic anxiety for all athletes, only those who were part of the individualized program showed significant increments in self-confidence scores (Savoy & Beitel, 1997).  These results suggest that an individualized approach in cognitive behavioral treatment may yield more tangible benefits for athletes who may have issues with self-confidence; however, the improvement of cognitive and somatic anxiety may be undertaken in a group setting. Other researches have indicated that any intervention, regardless of content, is deemed advantageous and effective in reducing anxiety. Tennis players in one of four interventions (imagery, relaxation, relaxation and imagery, and concentration) presented substantial decreases in somatic and cognitive anxiety and an enhancement in self-confidence (Terry, Coakley, & Karageorghis, 1995).  If a no-treatment control group would have been included, then their results might have shown some differences among the groups; but, this study still suggests that cognitive-behavioral interventions are efficacious for the purposes of performance improvement. On the other hand, research administered with field hockey players have pointed out that anxiety reduction techniques that are focused at the individuals dominant anxiety type (cognitive or somatic) is more effective (Maynard & Cotton, 1993).  It is a requisite then to gauge an athletes needs before implementing any of these interventions. Nevertheless, these researchers indicate the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral interventions.   Relaxation One of the most extensive methods that have been investigated in the literature for decreasing both cognitive and somatic anxiety is relaxation and progressive muscle relaxation (Hardy, Jones, & Gould, 1996). These two strategies have been effectively utilized in clinical treatment settings. Butler (1996) asserts that there are instances when athletes have a difficult time decreasing their arousal levels once competition has ceased. On the other hand, the use of progressive muscle relaxation has been suggested for this purpose and may yield potential benefits for athletes who find it hard to sleep at night before the momentous day of competition (Butler, 1996). While both interventions garner benefits for the purpose of anxiety reduction, past experience suggests that they first work effectively when utilized in combination with imagery directed at relaxation. Upon mastery of these methods, the relaxing imagery may be ridden off. Cognitive Imagery Cognitive imagery and mental rehearsal of tasks is also advantageous for the athlete who intends to drive his performance to optimal levels. It accords familiarity with the task and offers good feedback of their imagined performance (Hardy et al., 1996).  This intervention has specifically been demonstrated to be efficacious with collegiate athletes in all sports.  Results of research suggest that athletes who were in the imagery intervention had significantly greater increments in sport performance and sport competition anxiety than did the delayed-training control group (Lohr & Scogin, 1998).  The exact mechanism of imagery has yet to be established.  However, researchers have  determined visual imagery ability and motivational arousal imagery as predictive of cognitive state anxiety (Vadocz, Hall, & Moritz, 1997).  Visual imagery ability was also determined as a predictor of somatic state anxiety, and motivational mastery imagery was also a predictor of self-confidence (Vadocz, Hall, & Moritz, 1997).  Moreover, it has been found that imagery ability was significantly associated to imagery use such that as ability increased so did use (Vadocz, Hall, & Moritz, 1997). Butler (1996) has determined some components of an imagery routine. First is the selection of a skill to be imagined. Relaxation ought to be a prerequisite of relaxation. Visualization should also be as pragmatic and realistic as possible, integrating the use of all senses and the actual venue of the game or competition. Second, the technique to be imagined should also be concentrated on. An internal approach (that is, as if they are viewing it through their eyes and not through the lens of a camera) is needed. Moreover, trying to feel movement is also deemed efficacious in improving the imagery exercise. Finally, there should be an attempt to practice the skill in “real time”; that is there is no need to speed up or slow down its practice. Including coaches in the development of an imagery routine is crucial because it integrates functional skill and assists in decreasing the perceptions of psychologists as threatening. Butler (1996) asserts that imagery is a crucial portion of an athletes pre-competition regimen if they are to win and be successful in the long-term. Cognitive Restructuring One of the more important parts of treatment is cognitive restructuring because it permits athletes to have distinct interpretations of the activation states they are undergoing. In turn, this decreases cognitive anxiety. It can also be advantageous for decreasing the undue importance placed on competitions which will permit the display of an athlete’s true or raw ability.  Based on the multidimensional anxiety theory, the most sophisticated performers will have peak performances as cognitive anxiety declines and self-confidence is enhanced. This indicates that the most apt intervention might be to decrease the importance of competitions and attempt to attain an intermediate level of somatic anxiety (Hardy et al., 1996).  Goal setting is another important portion of cognitive restructuring.  It is critical not to set goals that are too ambitious for individuals since this in turn may increase their state anxiety (Jones, Swain, & Cale, 1990), impairing performance. The recommendations are to draft a series of smaller, more manageable goals for individuals to be able to break them down into component parts (Orlick, 1986).        The amount of cognitive effort that is used up by an athlete for practicing these strategies even has an influence on performance. For instance, Gould et al (1993) has presented significant differences between medal winners and non-medal winners at an Olympic wrestling competition was dependent on the extent to which the individuals used these interventions automatically. That is, winners will more probably use the interventions automatically. The best level performers have already achieved means of attaining the activation state that is required for the sport. One of the things that make athletics so fascinating is the number of different demands that are placed on an individual throughout a competition.  It is not probable that any one intervention will ever be able to work to everyone’s advantage.  Thorough assessment of the athletes needs is therefore strongly suggested. The current research focuses on an assessment of a specific training regimen that incorporates the three corporate strategies of relaxation, cognitive imagery and cognitive restructuring on enhancing the performance of budding soccer players. The author intended to focus on this group so that the techniques may be put to maximal use, equipping them with ‘automatic’ use of these techniques during competitions which may come their way later on. Definition of Terms In this proposal, the following operational definitions shall be used: Anxiety. Is an outcome of an individual doubting his or her ability to cope with the situation that causes him or her stress (Hardy et al., 1996).   Arousal. Can be considered to be a signal to the individual that he or she has entered a stressful state and is distinguished by physiological signs (Hardy et al., 1996).   Cognitive Imagery. Cognitive imagery and mental rehearsal of tasks are techniques that are beneficial for the athlete who intends to drive his performance to optimal levels. It accords familiarity with the task and offers good feedback of their imagined performance (Hardy et al., 1996). Cognitive Restructuring. It is a cognitive technique that permits athletes to have distinct interpretations of the activation states they are undergoing. In turn, this decreases cognitive anxiety (Hardy et al, 1996). Cognitive Techniques Module. In the current study, this pertains to the training regimen that will be undertaken by the treatment group of soccer players, containing exercises on the three cognitive techniques of relaxation, cognitive imagery and cognitive restructuring. Performance. In the present study, this pertains to performance during competitions of the participants. Relaxation. A cognitive technique that involves decreasing one’s arousal level. This also entails progressive muscle relaxation (Butler, 1996). Stress. A state that results from the demands that are placed on the individual which require that person to engage in some coping behavior (Jones, 1990). Significance of the Study The research would be beneficial for the athletes themselves; awareness and practice of techniques that will help them reduce anxiety and optimize their performance would ultimately develop them into better athletes. For the academe, the results of the study will be able to add to the literature on the topic, particularly with soccer players as the group of interest. Finally, the research will allow the author a more profound appreciation of the research process, and the rigor with which it is conducted. Statement of the Problem The following general problem will be addressed by the research: Are the cognitive behavioral techniques of relaxation, cognitive imagery and cognitive restructuring effective in increasing the performance of budding soccer players? In particular, the study wishes to address the following subproblems: 1) What is the performance level of athletes in the control group, i.e. those who will not be administered the cognitive-behavioral intervention? 2) What is the performance level of athletes in the treatment group, i.e. those who will undergo the cognitive-behavioral intervention? 3) Is there a significant difference between the performance levels of the treatment and control groups? Hypotheses The present study hypothesizes that the group of budding soccer players who undergo cognitive behavioral interventions will performance at significantly improved levels than those who did not receive these interventions. Chapter 2 Methodology Research Design The proposed study is a longitudinal, descriptive-comparative research design. It is descriptive in nature because it aims to establish the baseline performance levels of the athletes in both control and treatment groups. Moreover, it is comparative since it intends to statistically compare the performances of these two groups. Participants Participants shall be budding soccer players, that is, those who have just been recruited into their freshman college varsity soccer teams. A number of soccer teams shall be encouraged to participate to gather the number of respondents required to make valid conclusions. Purposive sampling shall be used in selecting the respondents. They have to meet the criterion of being in their first year in their respective soccer teams. To be valid, each group – control and treatment – must at least have 30 participants belonging to each. Instruments The sole instrument that shall be used in the study is the Cognitive Behavioral Techniques module. This is a module that has been customized for use in the study, and that integrates the three techniques of relaxation, cognitive imagery and cognitive restructuring as content. These shall be administered to the treatment group for a duration of six (6) months. All scores competitions following the treatment phase shall constitute the data for the research. Procedure The first step in the conduct of the study is the gathering of secondary data to form a strong and solid background for the study. Next the researcher is to design the Cognitive Behavioral Techniques module. Consequently, he is to write to universities, seeking their permission to allow their soccer students to participate in the research. Once the total number of respondents is found sufficient, the two groups shall be compared based on past performance scores to ensure more or less equal competence at the onset of the study. Once such equality has been established, the coaches shall be requested to implement the Cognitive Behavioral Techniques module for a period of six (6) months. Competition data shall then be gathered for at least three competitions. Total scores per player shall be tallied and statistically compared. Method of Data Analysis Means and percentage distributions shall be used to depict the performance levels of the two groups. The t-test for two independent groups shall then be used to statically measure if there are significant differences in their performance levels. Conclusion The current proposal aims to examine the effectiveness of a training module consisting of cognitive behavioral interventions in terms of their impact on athletic performance. Early research was constrained by a lack of clear operational definitions for the construct of anxiety.  It is recommended that similar regimen designs be empirically tested to assess real effectiveness. Only then can coaches truly claim that they are effectively managing the performance of their players. Once such effectiveness has been established the module may be marketed officially among soccer players globally.     References Butler (1996).  Sport psychology in action.  Butterworth-Heinemann: Oxford, England. Gould, D., Ecklund, R. C., & Jackson, S. A. (1993).  Coping strategies used by U.S. Olympic wrestlers. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 64, 83-93. Hardy, L., Jones, G., & Gould, D. (1996).  Understanding psychological preparation for sport:  theory and practice of elite performers. Wiley, Chichester. Holm, J. E., Beckwith, B.E., Ehde, D. M., & Tinius, T. P. (1996).  Cognitive-behavioral interventions for improving performance in competitive athletes:  A controlled treatment outcome study.  International Journal of Sport Psychology, 27, 463-475. Jones, G., & Hardy, L. (1990).  Stress in sport:  Experiences of some elite performers.  In G. Jones and L. Hardy (Eds.), Stress and performance in sport, Wiley, Chichester, 247-277. Kolezynski, J. (2005). 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Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 9, 241-253. Read More