The Dilemma of National Identity among Islamic-Chinese - Research Paper Example

Name: Institution: Tutor: Date: The Dilemma of National Identity among Islamic-Chinese Introduction Islam in China can be traced back to 616-18 AD. Prior to this period China had maintained strong trading relations with Arabs who spearheaded the spreading of Islam in China (Humphrey, p167). Based on Chinese Muslim legendary accounts Islam was first introduced in China by Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas. As trading interaction increased, Muslims begun to migrate to China and ultimately they brought about significance economic, social and religious influence on the country. According to Gladney (p451) the identity of Islam in China can best be expressed as ethno-religious in the sense that state national policy and ethnicity have brought about a permanent mark on modern day Muslim identity. As a result it is basically not possible to talk about Islam in China without making reference to national and ethnic identity. The Islamic religion has therefore influenced the challenge of national Identity among Chinese Muslims. This particular paper therefore seeks to evaluate the challenge between the Islamic-Chinese Identity and the National-Chinese Identity. Research Objectives Highlight the differences that exist between Islamic-Chinese Identity and the National-Chinese Identity Highlight relationship between the Islamic-Chinese Identity and the National Chinese Evaluate the challenge between the Islamic-Chinese Identity and the National-Chinese Identity. Analyze the current issues that exist concerning Chinese Muslims the consequences arising from the issues Research Hypothesis The Challenge of National Identity among Islamic Chinese is based on religious grounds Literature Review Zang (p75) highlights that the introduction and expansion of Islam in many regions of China resulted to the formation of a distinct identity known as the Islamic-Chinese Identity. The identity was evidently different from the National-Chinese Identity. Over the last thirteen hundred years, Islam in China has mostly been propagated among people referred to as Hui, who are also branded as ‘’Chinese-speaking Muslims’’ or the “Sino-Muslims”. Stéphane et al (p93) reveal that the Islamic- Chinese identity differs from the national identity in terms of traditions, history and customs. However a lot of aspects of the Islamic culture were also integrated into the Chinese culture. An interesting example is whereby Chinese Muslims changed their names. Many of the Muslims who married Han women adopted the name of the wife in order to develop a name that had Chinese cultural characteristic for instance Hu replaced the Islamic name Hussein ( Stéphane et al, p94). According to Dillon et al (p46) the aspect of Islamic- Chinese identity is matter that calls for many questions and assumptions about the nature of the Chinese society in terms of national identity and ethnicity. Dillon et al (p47) further argue that the question of identity for Islamic- Chinese is complicated. This is because a number of events in the past years bring about an indication of complexity that exists between Islamic-Chinese Identity and the National-Chinese Identity. For many years Islamic Muslims have been perceived as the minority voice in national matters (Israeli, p15). A study conducted by Gillette( p35) to evaluate a nation wide demonstration by Muslims in 1989 known as ‘’Salman Rushdie’’ reveals that the challenge in the nationalization of Muslim identify in China is the aspect of ethnicity , in that the Muslims who participated in the protest view themselves as a kind f vibrant ethnic group with an identify and self assurance that is very much their own , in that they were expressing themselves as a minority who have a right and voice as guaranteed by the constitution to speak out about the challenges they face. Humphrey (p154) reveals that there is indeed a difference between Islamic-Chinese Identity and the National-Chinese Identity. This therefore makes the question of the national identity of Islamic Muslims to be complicated. Gladney (p154) highlights that one ordinary misrepresentation that exist among both westerners and Chinese is the aspect of referring to Muslims in China as Hui or also (Huizu or Huimin). However the reality lies on the fact that the term Hui is basically one of many groups of Muslims in China, although it’s the largest. Today the Hui are categorized by the Chinese authority not as one of the religious groups but rather as an ethnic minority. Gladney (p155) highlights that the reason for this reference of the Hui is that the historical development these community is distinct. This is because they have a psychological condition that is distinct, their linguistic characteristics are minor and their social customs are different from the ethnic (Han) Chinese, in addition their population is only concentrated in certain localities. Gladney (p155) argues that all this aspects give the Islamic Muslims, the Hui an identity that is distinct. Further these aspects fulfill the PRC criterion of being categorized as an ethnic minority. According to Gillette (p51), Islam in China has historically been challenging. McDonell (p1) highlights that attempts of de-Islamization of Chinese Muslims have occurred in several incidences. The worst period was during the Cultural Revolution during 1966-1976. During this particular period, worship was forbidden and Mosques were closed. McDonell (p1) further articulates that the religious freedom policy was not then implemented as it exists currently. During the Cultural Revolution only foreigners were given the opportunity to worship at the Peking's Dong Si Mosque. McDonell (p1) highlights that the Cultural Revolution is one amongst the many attempts de-Islamization of Chinese Muslims, yet many of such attempts were frequently accompanied by protests. The Association of Chinese Muslims acknowledges the fact that Islam in China has suffered a great deal of harsh fate, as opposed to other religions in China (Kitagawa, p283). The Muslim Association attributes this factor to the concept of the ethic character of Islam, which has frequently rendered the religion more volatile. The damage that has been impacted on Islamic Chinese is usually physical as opposed to being spiritual. For instance, sometimes Muslims were forced to eat pork by the by the Red Guards. However pork was and is a taboo for the Muslim religion. The taboo is not only a religious and ethic custom but it is believed to cause six health effects to a Muslim. Kitagawa, (p283) argues that it is harder to destroy the beliefs held by people, the harsher the perception and oppression the stronger the belief held. Political changes in China since the year 1976 have tried to devise policies that can resolve the challenges faced by Islamic Chinese. Gillette (p59) argues that in spite of the fact that China’s Islamic population is higher than that of Saudi Arabia, Iraq or Malaysia, Islamic Chinese have often been perceived as a peripheral category of citizens. The Association of Chinese Muslims sees no contradiction between modernization and Islam in China. According to Kitagawa, (p285) there are no changes in way of life of the Islamic Chinese that has been influenced by modernization. Methodology The study adopted documentary analysis and case study. The study evaluated other data collection methods that could be used to investigate the topic. The study considered possible methods such as interviews, surveys and questionnaires use. In undertaking this study, the use of interviews despite having the advantage of allowing room for more probing and asking of questions would require more time and resources to undertake which may not be feasible under the circumstances of this study. The use of questionnaire on the other hand has been viewed as less accurate since in many instances some respondents normally fail to return the filled questionnaire making the research to be inaccurate and further bringing to doubt the accuracy of the data (Introduction to Research Methods 2005). Therefore, the study opted for a documentary analysis and case study, since they allow the collection of information from a wide range of sources and the collected information can then be analyzed easily using a political science view point, based on the nature of the objectives. Findings and Data analysis The relationship between Islamic-Chinese Identity and the National Chinese One of the findings of this study is that the relationship between Islamic-Chinese Identity and the National Chinese is a complex one. Zang (p80) reveals that over history Islamic Chinese have often felt as being categorized as the minority citizens based on the fact that they have not embraced the National Chinese religious beliefs. McDonell (p1) performed an assessment study on whether Islamic Chinese have been able to borrow other Chinese beliefs and cultures while at the same time maintaining their core beliefs in Islam. McDonell (p1) gives a description of how a small Hui village in China was surrounded by multiple ethnicities whereby they closely interacted with other religious communities separate from their ethnic group. However the Ironic aspect is that the people of Hui village still held on strongly to their Islamic beliefs. The village constantly worked with their Islamic discourse and they did not embrace attitudes and practices such as intermarriage with non-Muslims (McDonell, p1). According to McDonell (p1) Islamic Chinese have not been wholly friendly nor compatible with other national cultures and beliefs. This therefore makes the Identity of Islamic-Chinese and that of National Chinese quite complex. The challenge between the Islamic-Chinese Identity and the National-Chinese Identity The Association of Chinese Muslims acknowledged the fact that Islamic Chinese have since time memorial suffered a harsh fate which has further indicated that there is indeed a challenge of national identity among Islamic-Chinese Identity. Throughout the history of China, there has existed a tradition of popular traditional religions which drew inspiration from Chinese local traditions or from the mythologies of Daoism, Buddhism, and also Christianity in the late 1980s. Stéphane (p109) highlights that one major issue that can be raised is that in China, the traditional believes are highly linked to some level of Chinese nationhood and a unified culture. For instance in the late colonial years the concept of being ‘’Chinese’’ was closely associated to earlier traditions. The challenge between the Islamic-Chinese Identity and the National-Chinese Identity therefore arises based on the fact that Islam is a religion that possess quite distinct religious and cultural believes that are basically different from the traditional Chinese believes. As a result Islamic Chinese have frequently faced the challenge of not being part of Chinese nationhood and a unified culture. Stéphane(p110) reveals that based on the fact that the Chinese Islamic minorities make up the majority population of the autonomous regions and Western province of China, there is a growing trend by the Chinese government to repress the activities of the Muslims populations in this areas and view them as a threat to security and the firmness of Chinese governmental control. Furthermore, practicing Islamic doctrines has resulted to the segregation of Islamic Chinese due to their distinct cultural activities which is evidently different from that of other Chinese communities (Stéphane, P98). For instance the Islamic Chinese follow the dietary laws of Islam and have rejected the eating of pork, which is the most common type of meat that is eaten in the Chinese culture. Islamic Chinese have therefore developed their unique type of Chinese Islamic art and cuisine Furthermore their dressing codes primarily differs from other Chinese communities. Stéphane (p98) highlights that this aspects of culture have influenced the differences that exist between Islamic-Chinese Identity and the National-Chinese Identity. Most of the national identity challenges that face Muslims in China today have remained the same as they used to be in the past 1,400 years, as they have continued to interact with the greater part of the Chinese society. However it is essential to take note of the fact that some of the challenges are actually new especially based on the fact that the Chinese society is being transformed with increasing globalization. Zaidi (p1) highlights that especially with the dividing events of the September 11 terrorist attacks and the succeeding events of war against terrorism. Due to such events Muslims in China live as the minority population, Zaidi (p1) that many of these Muslim communities have survived many situations that are inhospitable. The current issues that exist concerning Chinese Muslims the consequences arising from the issues Today, the current population of Islamic Chinese consists of 10 minority groups. Thirty four years after 1966-1976 Cultural Revolution, Muslims in China are to some extent in a position that is much better. This is because more Islamic schools have been built, collages, Islamic associations and mosques. Wei Shan (p59) highlights that after many years of repression, Islamic Chinese are flourishing in various ways for instance they are now able to manage inter -ethnic events amongst themselves and they can also be part of international relations with other Muslims abroad. However in the recent years Islamic Chinese have also faced a great deal of challenges. McDonell, (p1) highlights that clashes arose in 2009 in China's Xinjiang region. The clashes were perceived as a wider ethnic conflict between the local Uighurs and Han Chinese who make up the largest Islamic group. The violent clashes which took a heavy toll resulted to the 184 deaths of which 46 were Uighur while 137 were Han Chinese. McDonell, (p1) reveals that in response to the deadly conflict, a Conference was held in July 2009 which resulted to the establishment of the development of the existing ethnic policy. The content of the policy entailed having a religious autonomic system of the ethnic minorities. In the autonomous regions, ethnic minorities were entitled to enjoy a variety of favourable policies which included a unique quota system in terms of political representation; this implies that more of the minority group was to have more seats in the people’s government and congress .Other areas of policy development include education (priority in college admission and secondary school), family planning, legal issues (law enforcement is undertaken with lenience). A majority of the outlined preferential policies are also safeguarded by the Regional Ethnic Autonomy Law that was promulgated in 1984 (McDonell, p1). Wei Shan (p57) reveals that although policies have been devised to resolve ethnic conflict that existed among the Uighur and the Han Chinese. Wei Shan (p57) highlights that the preferential policies in China’s Xinjiang region have sharpened ethnic divide as opposed to reducing the ethnic divide. The policy has resulted to a scenario of benefit distribution according to the ethnic status of people thereby making people unequal economically and politically. Consequently the situation has resulted to increased ethnic consciousness of the minorities (Wei Shan, p58). Wei Shan (p59) argues that the recent policy devised after the unrest in China's Xinjiang region is a distinction between ethnicity and religion which arises from a Chinese Marxist approach whereby ethnicity tends to perceive ethnic customs, consciousness and religion as circumstantial traits. These cultural traits are therefore frequently class-based and therefore importance is only attached to competition of scarce resources. Wei Shan (p59) further argues that ethnic identity will only loose meaning when the social economic conditions are transformed. What is evident from the above findings is that the difficult transnational relations and inter-ethnic relations of the Muslim people living inside China have led to the surfacing of an ethno-religious identity that opposes the most widespread modern categories of classification: ethnicity or religion and nation (Humphrey, p177). With a focus on the central responsibility of Islamic Chinese, what is evident is that this society has worked towards creating a form of and Inner Asian Chinese nation-state, with characteristics of having distinct religious beliefs, cultural practices and constant resistance to assimilation. Aliya (p44) therefore argues that the concept of national identity of Islamic Chinese continues to be a complex situation in despite of the formulation of policies to resolve the impending challenges facing these community in China. Conclusion From the above presentation, what is evident is that the concept of national identity for Islamic- Chinese is complicated. This is attributed to the difference in the cultural and religious beliefs held by the Islamic- Chinese which basically segregates them from the rest of the nation. A number of historical events such as Cultural Revolution of the years 1966-1976 also increased the level of complexity in the identity of this religious group. In addition, events in the recent years such as the 2009 clashes in Xinjiang region continue to highlight the challenges faced by Islamic Muslims in China. What is evident is that although policies have been formulated to resolve this dilemma, a lot has to be done in order to ensure that Islamic Chinese have a feeling of being part of the wider Chinese community, despite of the existing religious and cultural differences. This particular study is basically useful because it provides grounds for further investigation concerning the concept of national identity for Islamic Chinese. The areas that can further be investigated include undertaking a primary research or field work research in order to evaluate the views of Islamic Chinese about the concept national identity. This would involve the use of questionnaires and interviews are the research method. An additional study in the area will be to investigate whether the newly developed policies can actually solve the current dilemma concerning national identity of Islamic. References Aliya Ma Lynn. Muslims in China. University Press. 2007,p. 44, Dillon, M. Muslim Communities in Contemporary China: The Resurgence of Islam after the Cultural Revolution.12(5), `p45-51. Journal of Islamic Studies. (1994). Gladney, Dru. Muslim Chinese: ethnic nationalism in the People's Republic. Harvard University Asia Center, 1996,p17-18. Gladney, Dru. ‘’Islam in China: Accommodation or Separatism?’’ The China Quarterly. 174: 451-467, (2003). Gladney, Dru. Islam in China: Beijing’s Hui and Uighur Challenge. Winter/Spring , 2007. Gillette, Maris. Between Mecca and Beijing: modernization and consumption among urban Chinese Muslims. Stanford University Press. p35-59, 2000. Humphrey Peter . Islam in China Today. Journal of Islamic Studies .(2003) , p167-177.. Kitagawa Joseph . The religious traditions of Asia: religion, history, and culture. Routledge.2002, p. 283-310. McDonell, Stephen. Ethnic conflict fears in Xinjiang unrest. 2009,p1 Israeli, Raphael. Islam in China: religion, ethnicity, culture, and politics. Lexington Books, p 15 -17. 2002 Introduction to Research Methods, 2005, Questionnaires and Interviews, Retrieved on October 24, from 2011 from http://cbdd.wsu.edu/edev/NetTOM ToT/Resources/other/e62. Stéphane Dudoignon, Hisao Komatsu, Yasushi Kosugi . Intellectuals in the modern Islamic world: transmission, transformation, communication. Taylor & Francis,p95-110. 2006 Wei Shan and Weng Cuifen. China’s New Policy in Xinjiang and its Challenges. East Asian Institute, National University of Singapore, 2010, p56-59. Zang, Xiaowei. Ethnicity and urban life in China: a comparative study of Hui Muslims and Han Chinese. Routledge, 2007, p74-85. Zaidi Moufid. Islam in China, Present Revival and Future Prospects. 2010,p1.   . Read More