Theories of Development - Term Paper Example

Theories of Development Table of Contents Theories of Development 1.0 Introduction 2 2.0 Background analysis of development theories 3 2 Modernisation theory 3 2.2 Structuralism development theory 4 2.3 Dependency theory 5 2.4 Basic needs theory 6 2.5 Neo-liberalist development theory 7 2.6 Recent trends in development theories 8 2.6.1 Sustainable development theory 8 2.6.2 Human development theory 8 3.0 The efficacy of development theories in the relation to the tourism sector 9 3.1 The modernisation development theory 9 3.2 Sustainable development theory 11 Reference 14  Abbott, L. 2011. Theories of Industrial Modernization & Development: A Review. Industrial Systems Research 14 Allen, G. and Brennan, F. 2004. Tourism in the New South Africa: Social Responsibility and the Tourist Experience. Durban, South Africa I.B.Tauris 14 Bricker, K. Black, R. and Cottrell, S. 2012. Sustainable Tourism & The Millennium Development Goals.Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning 14 14 Crain, W. 2010. Theories of Development Concepts and Applications. New Jersey, U.S: Pearson Publications 14 Gerdes, K. Hajicova, E. and Wanner, L. 2014. Computational Dependency Theory. Amsterdam: IOS Press 15 Harris, R. and Seid, M. 2000. Critical Perspectives on Globalization and Neoliberalism in the Developing Countries. BRILL Publications 15 Haque, S. 1999. Restructuring Development Theories and Policies: A Critical Study. New York: SUNY Press 15 Holden, A. 2013. Tourism, Poverty and Development. London: Routledge 15  Ibrahim, A. 2013. Strengths and Weaknesses of the Neo-Liberal Approach to Development. Germany: GRIN Verlag 15 Norberg, J. and Cumming, G. 2008. Complexity Theory for a Sustainable Future (Complexity in Ecological Systems). New York, US: Columbia University Press 16 Roberts, T. and Hite, A. 2000. From Modernization to Globalization: Perspectives on Development and Social Change. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell 16 Ros, J. 2001. Development Theory and the Economics of Growth. Michigan, US: University of Michigan Press 16 Setterfield, M. 2010. Handbook of Alternative Theories of Economic Growth. Camberley, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing 16 Weaver, D. 2005. Sustainable Tourism. London; Elsevier 16 Williams, O. 2013. Corporate Social Responsibility: The Role of Business in Sustainable Development (Global Institutions). London: Routledge 17 World Bank Publications (2001). Tanzania at the Turn of the Century. From Reforms to Sustained Growth and Poverty Reduction. U.S: World Bank Publications 17 1.0 Introduction From a simplistic perspective, it is noted that the term development refers to a significant occurrence that normally has positive connotations i.e. it means the shift from poor, lower, or inferior state to a much more advanced, improved or enlightened state. The discussion of development is commonly classified into two groups that include a discussion on the development of human body, which comprises of physical features as well as cognitive features. The other common discussions regarding development include discussion involving economic, political, and social factors within a particular region. This study will focus on the discussion of development with regards to economical, political, and social factors. In particular, this study will begin with a preview of various development theories and it will then specifically focus on two theories of development, which it will evaluate their efficacy using examples from the tourism sector. It is important to note that development theory according to Peet et al. (2009) is ‘a collective vision of theories about how a desirable change in society is best achieved.’ Fforde (2013) added that such theories are developed from a variety of approaches and disciplines in social science. Among the most common development theories, include modernisation theory, structuralism theory, dependency theory, basic needs theory, neo-liberalism theory, and there are other recent trends, which comprise of post development theory, sustainable development theory, and human development theory. The tourism sector is normally integrated into the development agenda since it is perceived to be a major contributor to the economic development mostly in developing countries where it is a major source of foreign exchange. 2.0 Background analysis of development theories This section will brief review the listed development theories in order to select two theories which are relevant to the tourism sector. 2.1 Modernisation theory With reference to the writings by Roberts and Hite (2000), they wrote that the modernisation theory is normally used to analyze the process through which a society becomes modernized and it is important to note that the modernise infers to a situation whereby something becomes less old-fashioned as a result of new methods, ideas, or equipments. According to Roberts and Hite (2000), the theory additionally looks into the factors that are considered beneficial towards the advancement of a country and those that are considered obstacles towards the economic development of a particular country. Based on the analyses, the theory proposes that providing development assistance directed towards these identified factors can contribute towards the modernization of societies that are considered rather backward or traditional. In the current context whereby globalization is the order to the day, Crain (2010) stated that there are various features, which denote a region’s conformity to globalization features of which according to the modernisation theory, it can be stated that the theory focuses on the process whereby a particular region or country adopts or integrates features of globalisation. The analysis of the modernisation theory from a sociological and anthropological perspective which collectively affirm that the main principle of the modernisation theory is based on the ideology of progress, in the sense that people living in a particular region have the capacity to develop and change the region from their individual perspectives. Based on the sociological and anthropological perspective it is additionally noted that economical progress and technological advancements can contribute towards the positive change in the cultural and moral values of a society. Thirdly, in the writings by Abbott (2011), he indicated that there is a positive relationship between modernisation and democracy; this is because economic development within a particular region can contribute in social changes that tend to lead towards the attainment of democracy. In regards to the tourism sector, it can be stated that the modernisation theory conforms to the Butler’s Tourism Life-Cycle model, which stipulate that tourism destinations go through different stages of development that begin with the discovery of the destination, secondly, the involvement stage that involves the destination creating contact with few visitors. The third stage is the development stage, which involves the construction of world-class tourism facilities within the new destination (Inkson and Minnaert, 2012). 2.2 Structuralism development theory This theory focuses on the structural aspect within a region that has a likely impact on the economic growth of a country that is on the development path. The structuralism development theory is based on the ideology that for a country to record economic growth it should make a shift from subsistence agriculture to an economy that is urbanized in the service and manufacturing sector. In this regard, Setterfield (2010) suggested that the economic development of third world countries under the structuralism development theory is only attainable if they shift their focus towards industralisation and thereby reduce their dependency on trading with the First World countries. In order to achieve these third world countries will have to erect trade barriers and there overvalue their local currencies in order to boost consumption locally produced goods, which subsequently promotes the business of local infant companies. In regards to the tourism sector it can be stated that this theory does not apply since the tourism sector that are in the third world countries greatly rely on visitors from first world countries, and therefore, discouraging the reliance of the first world markets is likely posed to stifle the growth of the tourism sector in third world countries. 2.3 Dependency theory The dependency theory has a correlation to the structuralism development theory as it abides by most of its ideology that relying on the first world markets for the economic development of third world countries is risk on the economic stability of third world countries. However, the dependency theory differs from the structuralism development theory since it encourages the development of trading relations with the developed countries, which provide ready market and adequate finance to implement the development agenda (Crain, 2010). According to Muthee (2013), the dependency development theory differ with the modernisation theory as it states that the developments are not similar in all the societies since primitive societies bear features, institutions, and structures that are unique compared to the developed countries. The dependency theory stipulates that third world countries are bound to remain economically at risk if they do not reduce their dependency on the developed economies. The dependency theory best describes the tourism sector in developing or third world countries since they greatly rely on tourists from developed countries who have high spending power. It is because of this reason that tourism sector in such countries are seasonal i.e. pegged on the season when foreign visitors from the developed countries are bound to travel to foreign tourism destinations. According to Gerdes et al. (2014), the disadvantage about this dependency was noted during the global financial recession between the period of 2007 and 2009 that mostly affected developed economies thereby reducing the spending power of visitors from these countries. This subsequently resulted in low tourists arrivals in third world countries and decrease in the overall gross domestic product especially in third world countries where the tourism is a major economic player. 2.4 Basic needs theory In the writings by Ros (2001), he wrote that the basic needs theory was developed by the International Labor Organisation in 1976 upon the realization that the modernisation and the structuralism development theory were not geared towards poverty alleviation and creating equality within the society. Because of this reason, the basic needs theory was developed with the main objective of stipulating the minimum resources that are necessary for the long-term well-being of the entire population within a country and from this the minimum income that is needed to acquire these basic needs is then set. The application of basics needs theory has mainly been in the front of development assistance whereby it is used to determine what a society might need in order to be self-sustained and in order to alleviate those living below the poverty line. According to Gerdes et al. (2014), this theory is supported by the fact that through the elimination of poverty within the society, people are able to make active contribution in the society by providing labor in an easier manner and by acting as consumers as well as savers in the economy. The basic needs theory comes into play in the tourism sectors since it encourages the inclusion of local communities living in the surrounding areas in the local tourism sector. This means that the theory encourage the locals to be given employment opportunities in the local tourism sector, which in turn enables them to improve their standard of living. Additionally, it can be stated that the local tourism sector should be used in poverty elimination in developing or third world countries, which means that its benefits should be cross-shared amongst the population. 2.5 Neo-liberalist development theory According to Haque (1999), the Neo-liberalism development theory was developed on the ideologies of classical economics that dealt with the value of products upon which the production factors are dependent and was in favor of free market economy that does not experience government intervention. Under the neo-liberalism development theory, Ibrahim (2013) stated that the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank prescribed to developing countries the Structural Adjustment Programmes that they should implement in order to attain full development. Some of these programmes include privatization, currency devaluation, and trade liberalization. Under the tourism sector, it can be stated that the neo-liberalism development theory applies from the perspective it enables the tourism sector to run without government interference, which could have possibly stifle innovation and the overall development of the sector. 2.6 Recent trends in development theories 2.6.1 Sustainable development theory Bricker et al. (2012) stated that sustainable development is whereby there is economic development that is aimed towards addressing the present needs without interfering with the ability or opportunities for the future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainable development is normally focuses on environmental sustainability, sociopolitical sustainability, and even issues regarding climate change. With reference to the tourism sector, it can be stated that there has been increased emphasis on sustainable tourism practices, which promote behaviors that are aimed at protecting the environment and preserving the cultural as well as moral values of the surrounding communities. Sustainable tourism has been promoted on the backdrop of the disadvantages that are attributed to the tourism sector. 2.6.2 Human development theory According to Ros (2001), the human development theory capitalize on the need to desist from normative politics and it is built on the premise that the value of the human capital within an economy can only be increased through the optimization of infrastructural and social capital. The human development theory applies in the context of the tourism sector as it highlights on the impact of tourism economic policies on the well-being of the population. 3.0 The efficacy of development theories in the relation to the tourism sector This section will evaluate the efficacy of the modernisation development theory and the sustainable development theory in relation to tourism sector. These two theories have been selected since they best describe the development aspect in the tourism sector. 3.1 The modernisation development theory To begin with the modernisation development theory subscribe to linear stages of growth and in particular reference to the tourism sector it can be stated that it promotes the Butler’s Tourism Life-Cycle Model which basically demonstrates the different stages that are involved in the development of a particular tourism destination. Inkson and Minnaert (2012) in their studies provided in-depth explanation of the Butler’s TALC model and they began by stating that tourism destinations are products that should equally be marketed and they also have a life –cycle, and it is for this reason that Butler developed the tourism life-cycle model, which is applicable on tourism destinations. They further statated that according to Butler, tourist destinations normally undergo six critical stages that comprise of discovery or exploration, involvement, development, consolidation, stagnation, rejuvenation, or decline. A case example, that can be used to demonstrate the efficacy of Butler’s TALC model and therein, the modernisation development theory is the Waikiki tourism destination. It is correct to argue that this destination fits with the Butler’s TALC model because it is a product that was once discovered in the 1800’s when it was only used as a tourism destination for the Hawaiian royalty. After which it underwent the involvement stage, which constituted the formal contact with the few visitors who came (Hawaiian royalty), and then basic infrastructures such as hotels started to be constructed and then marketed within Hawaii market in order to attract more visitors to tour the newly discovered tourism destination. The third stage that Waikiki underwent as a tourism destination is the development stage, which involved rapid development with major participation from foreign investors who went to the region to construct state -of-the-art hotels. Presently, the Waikiki tourism destination is at the stagnation stage having passed the consolidation stage, since Watanbe (2013) stated that because of the strong demand in Waikiki, the Hawaiian tourism industry recorded a 5.1% increase in tourism revenue within the first eight months of the year 2013. Watanabe (2013) further affirmed that Waikiki is in the stagnation stage because of the fact that its future growth rate might not be sustainable because of competitive factors such as rising airfares, and competition from other destinations that are less expensive. The case example above best demonstrates the efficacy of the modernisation development theory in the tourism sector since it is noted that the development of the Waikiki tourism destination underwent through various growth stages that have resulted in the destination presently undergoing stagnation. In the writings by Holden (2013), he stated that under the modernisation development theory a country normally undergoes five critical stages of development that comprise of traditional society, pre-conditions for take-off, take-off, drive to maturity, and lastly the age of high mass consumption. From the writings by Roberts and Hite (2000), it can be stated that the modernisation theory best explains the development of the developing economies that is in tandem with their tourism sector. For example, a country such as South Africa has experienced improved economic performance over the past few decades, which has been largely characterized by improved infrastructure. This economic development has been equally reflected in the tourism sector whereby it has been noted that tourism facilities that includes hotels, parks, and even the transportation vehicles have gradually improved over times in stages that are in tandem with economic progress of the country. For example, in the initial stages of the development of the South African tourism sector the hotels mostly ranged from one star to two star hotels, however in the recent times there are numerous fives star hotels in South African, which denote the development that the South African tourism sector has undergone (Allen and Brennan, 2004). In the writings by Allen and Brennan (2004), they stated that Marxism laws dictates that sectors within an economy should develop at an equal rate. In this regard, it is noted that the development in the South African mining sector has equally been reflected in the tourism sector mostly because of the fact that the mining sector attract a lot of expatriate workers or foreign investors who equally act as tourists when they are in the country for business. 3.2 Sustainable development theory Sustainability had greatly been emphasis in every undertaking in the present World mostly because of its positive contribution towards environmental conservation. Weaver (2005) in his writings stated that the heated discussion about climate change created increased emphasis on the negative effects numerous economic activities were having on the environment, which to an extent presented a potential danger to the future existence of plants, animals, and even humankind on the natural environment. Norberg and Cumming (2008) added that numerous economic activities were resulting in increased environmental pollution mostly from the waste they were producing, which caused damage to the environment and even contributed to the global rate of warming. For example, the hotels that are located at the sea or Lake Front/ shore are largely accused of remitting their waste to the water bodies thereby causing extensive pollution. Based on these factors there has been increased calls for the integration of sustainable practices in the tourism sector in order to ensure that the pollution that even include emissions arising from this sector are kept to a minimal level. This is aimed at ensuring that the tourism sector is still available for the future generation and that tourists in the future will still be able to enjoy the serene environment that is presently available in most tourist destinations. In the writings by Bricker et al. (2012), sustainable tourism has been described as tourism that is focused on making as little as possible negative impact on the environment as well as the culture of the local, whilst creating employment opportunities for the locals and creating memorable experience to the tourists. Williams (2013) added that the sustainable development of tourism is based on the concept of responsible tourism that equally aims at promoting good tourism practices that do not have a negative impact on the environment and even the local community. Under the sustainable development theory it is noted that there are crucial stakeholders who must participate in order to ensure that the tourism sector develops in a sustainable manner. These key stakeholders comprise of relevant government agencies such as the Ministry docket in charge of tourism and/ or cultural heritage, secondly, non-governmental agencies that even include international bodies such as the World Tourism Organization. The third key stakeholder is the local communities that mostly live close to tourist destinations or facilities. The last key stakeholders are the tourists themselves who are expected to promote sustainable tourism development by acting responsibly (Aas et al. 2005). In the writings by Harri and Seid (2000), they stated that with the wide adoption of the neo-liberalism development theory in the 1990s in most developing countries there was a negative impact since crucial sectors such as the tourism sector were left unregulated or slightly regulated. This meant that there was no active participation of the listed stakeholders in ensuring that tourism develops in a sustainable manner. According to Harri and Seid (2000), these negative impacts of the neo-liberalism development theory were mostly experienced in the developing countries. This because they were under a lot of pressure to expand the sector and undertake any initiative that could possibly attract more tourists as the sector had proven to be a highly valuable sector that made significant contributions towards the national economy. This resulted in negative trends across numerous developing countries such as the displacement and resettlement of people from tourism conservation areas. For example, the Maasai communities in Tanzania who were living along the areas adjacent to the Mara River where there is usually the annual Wildebeest migration were evacuated and resettled elsewhere in order to conserve the areas for tourism attractions and construct numerous tourism facilities (World Bank Publications, 2001). The other negative trends rising from the adoption of the neo-liberalism development theory in the tourism sector in developing countries is the wide spread environmental pollution and degradation in tourism destinations. However, rising from the increased calls of social responsibility and environmental conservation there has been an integration of sustainable development strategy in the tourism sector of most developing countries. For example, in all of the National parks in Kenya there is a litter free policy whereby tourists are restricted from littering the tourists’ parks and hotels along the coastline have been restricted from directly discharging their waste to the water bodies (World Bank Publications, 2001). These initiatives have been promoted in developing countries in order to ensure that the tourism sector becomes a long-term contributor to the economic development of these countries. Reference Aas, C., Ladkin, A., and Fletcher J. (2005). Stakeholder collaboration and heritage management. Annals of Tourism Research. Vol. 32 No. 1. p. 28-48.  Abbott, L. 2011. Theories of Industrial Modernization & Development: A Review. Industrial Systems Research Allen, G. and Brennan, F. 2004. Tourism in the New South Africa: Social Responsibility and the Tourist Experience. Durban, South Africa I.B.Tauris Bricker, K. Black, R. and Cottrell, S. 2012. Sustainable Tourism & The Millennium Development Goals.Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning Crain, W. 2010. Theories of Development Concepts and Applications. New Jersey, U.S: Pearson Publications Fforde, A. 2013. Understanding Development Economics: Its Challenge to Development Studies (Economics as Social Theory). London: Routledge Gerdes, K. Hajicova, E. and Wanner, L. 2014. Computational Dependency Theory. Amsterdam: IOS Press Harris, R. and Seid, M. 2000. Critical Perspectives on Globalization and Neoliberalism in the Developing Countries. BRILL Publications Haque, S. 1999. Restructuring Development Theories and Policies: A Critical Study. New York: SUNY Press Holden, A. 2013. Tourism, Poverty and Development. London: Routledge  Ibrahim, A. 2013. Strengths and Weaknesses of the Neo-Liberal Approach to Development. Germany: GRIN Verlag Inkson, C. and Minnaert, L. (2012). Tourism Management: An Introduction. New York, U.S: Sage Publications Muthee, P. 2013. Dependency Theory: The Reality of the International System. U.S:L CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform Norberg, J. and Cumming, G. 2008. Complexity Theory for a Sustainable Future (Complexity in Ecological Systems). New York, US: Columbia University Press Peet, R. Hartwick, E. and Peet, R. 2009. Theories of Development: Contentions, Arguments, Alternatives. Guilford Press Roberts, T. and Hite, A. 2000. From Modernization to Globalization: Perspectives on Development and Social Change. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell Ros, J. 2001. Development Theory and the Economics of Growth. Michigan, US: University of Michigan Press Setterfield, M. 2010. Handbook of Alternative Theories of Economic Growth. Camberley, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing Watanabe, R. (2013). Is Waikiki’s tourism growth sustainable. Retrieved from: https://www.hotelnewsnow.com/Article/12494/Is-Waikikis-tourism-growth-sustainable. Accessed on [27.10.2013] Weaver, D. 2005. Sustainable Tourism. London; Elsevier Williams, O. 2013. Corporate Social Responsibility: The Role of Business in Sustainable Development (Global Institutions). London: Routledge World Bank Publications (2001). Tanzania at the Turn of the Century. From Reforms to Sustained Growth and Poverty Reduction. U.S: World Bank Publications Read More