Political Enigma in Egypt - Research Paper Example

POLITICAL ENIGMA IN EGYPT and number Political Enigma in Egypt Situated within North Africa, Egypt is a landthat is encircled by the red Sea, Sudan, Libya, the Mediterranean Sea, Israel and Gaza strip. The implementation and modeling of democracy in Egypt and culture that is attuned with the West has led to numerous different formation patterns from other areas in the West and the Middle East. Egypt can be termed as a modern state in relation to rule, administration and organization; however, it is not a modern Western country. Western Democracy can be instituted in non-Western culture; nonetheless, the unique form and adaption established does not presume that a non-democratic state prevails within a culture that may be termed as non-Western (Osman, 2011). The direction of Egypt to democracy has been callous and incessantly challenging on the countrys cultural, socio-economic and political institutions and constantly affects the country with the present uprising and rebellion for democratic governance that is open. The rationale behind this research paper will be to demonstrate the understanding of how politics and cultures affect Egypt; hence, ultimately affecting social change in the Egyptian culture. Images of historic land and society based on a strong history are evoked by the sheer mention of Egypt that was a mystery until the early Nineteenth Century. In antiquity, Egypt was known for pharaohs, its splendor, the pyramids and the great sphinx. Beyond the elegance, Egypt was also identified for improvements in hieroglyphic writing and success in architecture, art and farming. The source of the thriving of the ancient empire in Egypt was agriculture and the River Nile (Osman, 2011). According to Herodotus, a traditional Greek historian, Egypt was described as a “gift of the Nile” in ancient times. With receding cycles and torrent floods, the River Nile was the life of the dell. Egypt was among the most fertile agricultural regions in the world, sustaining and nourishing the land for many years (Osman, 2011). Compared to the generosity of the River Nile and how nature suited the Egyptians, their political history has never been generous. Politics in Egypt In July 1798, as part of the Ottoman Empire, Napoleon Bonaparte led his French men to an expedition in Egypt. This altercation led to the European Extension in Egypt. In the year 1801, resistance surfaced in Cairo, the “Anglo-Ottoman” force recuperated control. Uprisings and rebellion in Cairo strained the Ottoman government to name Muhammad Ali as the governor. From the year1805 to the year1848, Muhammad reorganized and modernized administrative, economic and military structures in Egypt through the introduction of Western methods and technology to economic, military, and administrative structures in Egypt (Osman, 2011). In 1854, Muhammad’s son reigned, securing authorization from the French to construct a maritime canal in the course of the Suez strip. The European interest amplified and caught the attention of Europeans who later settled in the cities whilst enhancing the strategic position of Egypt. By the close of Sa’id’s son’s reign in 1879, the Egyptian government had been lent money by European banks at inflated rates of interest that resulted to huge debts by the end of Sa’ids’ era. In early 1876, the Dual Financial Control Office and Caisse de la DettePublique was set up to oversee state’s expenditures and revenues. In an agitation to reduce expenditures so as to evade bankruptcy the state contributed a reformist movement of “Ahmad Urabi” (Grimar, 1988). Alexandria region was bombarded by the British in July 1882; these suppressed the revolt and led to the occupation by the British for seventy four years. The Ottoman Empire was assuming that it was running its affairs; nevertheless, Egypt stayed put and was governed by Lord Cromer and his descendants. The British later announced Egypt as its protectorate when the Ottoman entered the war. The Wafd movement initiated national revolutions that sprout after the war. The Wafd movement accomplished their conquest in 1922, when Britain ended its protectorate over Egypt and proclaimed the sovereignty in Egypt as a self-governing kingdom. In 1922, Ahmad Fu’ad was proclaimed as King and in 1923, the journey for a new constitution commenced. Wafd was re-established in the political system as a result of free elections by the majority of Wafd supporters (Grimar, 1988). In 1936, negotiations embraced the Treaty of Anglo-Egyptian and consequently the British remained in the Canal Zones, Cairo and Alexandria. Different political forces such as the Muslim Brotherhood opposed the Treaty. In 1951; the treaty was revoked by the Egyptian government that followed in the Egyptian commandos attacking British soldiers. The trouncing of Egypt in the 1948 in the Arab-Israeli War was on the same wavelength with the ambiguity in the social and political institutions that had begun in the 1940s.The volatility was caused by urbanization that was out of control, class inequalities and labor conflicts (Grimar, 1988). Wafd had possessed the greater part of the majority and had structured the cabinet by the year 1950. Extreme struggles between Wafdists and the King led to public violence, rebellions and uprisings. In 1952, General Naguib took over power; however, the monarchy was abolished and Egypt declared a republic. In 1954, General Naguib resigned subsequently to meeting the opposition in an effort to press forward to a republic that was parliamentary (Grimar, 1988). Nasser took full control in 1954 and having a new constitution installed; Sudan proclaimed its liberation in the year 1956(Grimar, 1988). The Great Britain and the U.S. decided to stop their financial aid for the constructions of Aswan High Dam that resulted to high tensions as soon as the Soviet Union took over. The British embassy officials got expelled from Egypt by Nasser and the Suez Canal was nationalized; hence, expelling British oil. A combined arrangement among Israel, Britain and France provoked by incessant guerrilla assaults from Gaza, raided Gaza followed by air attacks from France and Britain. Before long France, Israel and Britain enunciated a cease-fire due to international political pressure. The United Arab Republic was created as Egypt and Syria merged in the year 1958. In addition, there was a formation of the United Arab States as Yemen joined in the merger. A demise to the merger emerged in 1961 that was caused by political and personal differences as a result of the Syrian revolt (Grimar, 1988). The monarch would dissolve parliaments, violate or suspend the constitution, whenever power was endangered. The Wafd triumphed in every election and was dismissed in a number of occasions. Tensions rose during this time and led to the birth of movements such as Communist organizations, the Young Egypt Party, the Muslim Brotherhood and the Free Officers. The British opposition of the class reform ruling, repudiation to move out of the Canal Zone and the perseverance of absolute rule at the bastion led to a revolution (Osman, 2011). In 1952, the army took over control and terminated the monarchy by the year 1953 and Egypt was declared a republic. The Muslim Brotherhood and Wafd movements got abolished as well as all political parties that existed in Egypt. With the support of Soviet economic and technical assistance, industrialization sprout in 1962, in Egypt and consequently the nationalization of agriculture and industry occurred. Nasser took over the leadership and premiership of the ASU (Arab Socialist Union), the nation’s only political party in the 1967. In view of the fact that, disputes between Egypt and Israeli created chaos among the Arab states, Israel and Egypt, sanctions got imposed on shipping. Ground and air attacks got launched by Israel due to attacks emanating from Arabs; this was until the United Nations placed a cease-fire (Fradkin and Libby, 2012). A post-war policy was introduced in Egypt that included the United Nations Security Council Resolution enactment and also dealings with Israel would no longer be tolerated. After the sudden death of Nasser in the year 1970, Nasser’s Vice President Sadat was sworn in as the president. The nation changed its name to the “Arab Republic of Egypt” and a new constitution was started a year later. In 1973, there was political unrest; this gave Anwar al-Sadat premiership since the cabinet was compulsorily forced to quit (Fradkin and Libby, 2012). Anwar al-Sadat opted for civilians in prominent government positions and extricated the army from political affairs. There was gradual democratization in the political structure that led to a restricted multiparty system. Anwar al-Sadat christened for referendums so as to ratify his policies including the treaty on Israeli peace. In addition, Sadat’s desire to have a democracy and his approach to the U.S. strengthened his country’s ties with the U.S. (Fradkin and Libby, 2012). War between Egypt and Israel Egyptian forces attacked Israel in 1973 and advanced to Sinai, air and ground fighting ensued between Egypt, Syria and Israel. A cease-fire was later declared by Anwar al-Sadat and keeping in tune with events, oil export was drastically reduced to all states that provided support to Israel so as to pressure the U.S government. The USSR and the U.S. later submitted a decree to the U.N. to enhance deliberations for peace. The U.N. established the United Nations Emergency Force to supervise the cease-fire. Efforts in mediation on behalf of Henry Kissinger, the then U.S. Secretary, led to face-to-face deliberations and Israel agreed to the proposal (Dunstan, 1973). Peace between Nations The U.S. efforts to resume diplomatic relations and have a settlement with Egypt, became strong. The U.S. aided Egypt retaining close ties with the West and also cleaning up the war debris. The U.S. President, Nixon, visited Egypt in the1974 and pursued a treaty that assisted Egypt in diplomatic nuclear developments. Sadat also visited Jerusalem in 1977 with plans for peace between Israel and Egypt. In 1979, Israel and Egypt signed a formal peace treaty in the U.S. Egypt was suspended by the Arab League since Egypt had signed a peace treaty and also the Arab League imposed a boycott on Libya and Egypt that triggered disputes along their borders (Grimar, 1988). Controversy between Muslims and Christians augmented tensions with the regime in 1981, and eventually Sadat was assassinated in the same year by terrorists from the Muslim community. Sadat’s Vice President Mubarak succeeded him. Mubarak entered into power in a time when Egypt had economic disparity, facing unrest, and also opposition from Muslim fundamentalists. Nevertheless, Mubarak continued relations with Middle East and the U.S. in 1989, Egypt was readmitted to the Arab League. Egypt contributed to the “Persian Gulf War” in the year 1991, through sending of military soldiers, this reinforced Western relations; although, there was opposition to this participation by the Islamic fundamentalists. Terrorism rose as a result of the Islamic movement that killed hundreds and also targeted political leaders in an effort to have their traditional law implemented (Fahmy, 2006). There was failure to assimilate Islamist groups by Egypt into the political structure since the Muslim Brotherhood desired Egypt to be under the Muslim “Sharia” law. Although the Muslim Brotherhood opposition to the Gulf War and the 1990 elections destabilized their stance, they still remain the most influential and prominent of the Islamic factions. Smaller Islamic militant factions especially the al-Jihad continually inflicted violence against Copts, tourists and innocent citizens from the year 1992 to the year1997. Most professional services, Universities and affiliation by professors got limited by these Islamist factions. Following the assignation of Sadat, Islamic media and any endeavors of militancy got censored and the scrutinizing of lectures at Mosques was started (Stacher, 2001). From the year 2000 to the year 2010, terrorist assaults continued and had always been associated to Islamic extremism. The Sudan kidnapping in 2008, the 2004 Sinai bombings, the bombing of al-Qidiseen, the attack in Cairo in 2004, the Dahab bombings in 2006, the 2005 Sharm el-sheikh attacks, the Hezbollah plot in 2009 and the bombing in Khanel-Khalili in 2009 are just some of the atrocities carried out by these extremist factions. Moreover, in the 9/11 attacks in 2001, against the U.S., four of the men accused of the assaults were Egyptians (Osman, 2011). The modern-day Egypt Egypt’s state of affairs may be unclear, the landscape devastated, and the Egyptian nationals desire for democratic governance and also reform; regrettably, the link between the calls for better democracy and terrorism causes chaos between the Arab worlds. In 2011, there was a gigantic non-violent demonstration to oust President Mubarak that was mostly in Cairo where youthful protestors won the opposition’s support. Moves to oppose the protestors by the Government got violent and resulted in thousands dying and hundreds being injured. Mubarak was forced to resign and an interim government was instituted that disbanded parliament and also suspended the constitution that was in place. The interim government promised to reform political development and the constitution before the elections (Osman, 2011). The Egyptian government and Islamists have stifled the civil society in Egypt. In 1999, the GDD (Group for Democratic Development) prearranged for a class for teachers in Egypt to employ democratic tools in classes; however, it was disenchanted by the then Education Minister. Teachers involved in the GDD got penalized and their salaries got harbored for attending the workshop. The Education Minister later reported that the GDD attempted to teach them freedom of sexuality and Atheism (Stacher, 2001). Such actions by the Egyptian government to deter the ordinary public from involvement in political activities placed fear among the people who wanted to participate in politics. Another central problem in Egypt is poverty. There was a failure by the Egyptian government to give society economic reforms. Corruption is rampant in Egypt and inequalities socially have brought forth the unrest experienced in recent years (Stacher, 2001). Egypt’s poor health condition has led to corruption and mismanagement leading to shady governance and a dysfunctional system; consequently, leading to a decline in societal conditions, in Egypt. Egypt’s system of education has deteriorated; there are poor teacher-student ratios, the enrollment of pupils is falling and the unrelenting inequalities existing in gender among students. Schools in Egypt are ill-equipped with science laboratories, art rooms and playgrounds. The lofty expense of personal tutors is only accessible to wealthy families. In addition, there is a decline in society’s behaviors and values; there is much corruption, increased crime rate and disregard for human dignity. All this factors have led to numerous young Egyptians to run away from Egypt and live in other places. The unfathomable attachments of ancient times in the country and inviolability of the land have spread the tumultuous times in Egypt (Osman, 2011). In summary, this research paper has demonstrated the understanding of how politics and cultures have affected Egypt; hence, ultimately affecting social change in the Egyptian culture. Egypt has experienced various changes that have affected it, people’s values, society’s disengagement in running of the country and a staid gap of cohorts. The system of education might be worsening and the harm done to the land has altered the connections of Egyptians to their country and also to each other. Within this regression and social disorder, a shared dreary feeling of the prospect of the rising youthful generation has surfaced. The present uprising by millions of youthful Egyptians may be required to restore these connections that attempt to give meaning to their survival and to the overall existence of the society (Osman, 2011). The situation in Egypt can be termed as in abeyance. Only time will hopefully tell the prospect of Egypt as a country in a dissimilar direction than that in the ancient times. Political culture can be characterized by strength and dynamic momentum. Cultural blueprints tend to transform in response to experiences, socio-economic development and diverse institutional initiatives, as seen during the Western influence era. The political culture of non-democracy in Egypt and the conservation and the establishment of a democratic framework may be positive; nonetheless, this might or might not bring stability in Egypt. References Dunstan, S. (1973). The yomkippur war 1973.United Kingdom: Osprey Publishing. Fradkin, H., and Libby, L. (2012). Learning from Sadat. World Affairs, 175(3), 7-14. Grimar, N. (1988). History of ancient Egypt. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. Osman, T. (2011).Egypt on the brink. Yale University Press: Kindle Edition. Stacher, J. (2001). A democracy with fangs and claws and its effects on Egyptian political culture. Arab Studies Quarterly, 23(3), 83. Read More