Female Circumcision in Africa - Research Paper Example

Female Circumcision in Africa Female Circumcision Female genital cutting (FGC) is a matter that encompasses majority of the political complexities in the contemporary international system. It has instigated debate over cultural autonomy, human rights, and gender equality and it has resulted in charges of postcolonial colonization. It has become the centre stage of global mobilization from the late 1970s and its eradication or abolition a universal goal. The state response to FGC is a significant indication of how resistance and policymaking play their role in the context of international cultural conflict (Boyle 1). Female circumcision, female genital mutilation (FGM), and female genital cutting (FGC) all define the cultural practice of totally or partially removing the external female genitals or genitalia (Bacquet-Walsh, Jordan and Moneti par. 1). The World Health Organization (WHO) (par. 1) describes female genital mutilation (FGM) as all methods that entail the total or partial removal of the female external genitalia, or other form of injury to the female organs for reasons that are non-medical. The least form of FGC is the removal of the clitoris. The removal of the whole external genitalia is the most severe type of FGC; the vaginal opening of the victim is nearly closed. A small opening is left for menstrual blood and urine (Bacquet-Walsh, Jordan and Moneti par. 1). Althaus (130) states that female circumcision has been practiced for a long time in parts of Africa and it is considered as an element of rite passage in preparation for the young girls’ marriage and womanhood. The procedure is usually performed in the absence of an anesthetic and/or under septic environments by individuals (practitioners) with little or no knowledge of medicine or human anatomy. In other words, the practice is usually performed by traditional circumcisers who play a significant role in the community like attending childbirths. However, the trend is changing and it is being performed by health care providers (WHO par. 2). Medical professionals also perform the practice for a fee. Among the population, FGM/FGC can be carried out by male barbers, herbalists, a female relative, members of the secret society, and traditional health practitioners (United Nations Population Fund [UNFPA] par. 8). FGM or female circumcision is recognized globally as the violation of girls’ and women’s human rights. It expresses the deep-rooted inequality between the sexes and entails an extreme type of discrimination against the women. It is normally carried out on small girls and it is a violation of the children’s rights. It is carried on these minors under coercive pressures or without their consent (Alexander et al. 83). An individual’s rights to security, physical integrity, and health are also violated, the right to freedom from cruel and torture, degrading or inhumane treatment, and the right to life are violated when the method leads to death (WHO par. 3). Other than violating their rights, Types of FGM/FGC There are four types of FGM/FGC according to the World Health Organization. Type 1 entails the excision (excision is the removal of the clitoris and total or partial removal of labia minora and the size of the tissue removed varies from one community to the other) of the prepuce; it may or may not involve the excision of the whole or a part of the clitoris. Type 2 entails clitoris excision with total or partial excision of labia minora. Type 3 entails the excision of the whole or a part of the genitalia and the narrowing/stitching of the vaginal orifice (infibulation). It is also sometimes called pharaonic circumcision. Infibulation is the total or partial removal of labia minora, the removal of the clitoris and the stitching together or narrowing of the labia majora. Type 4 entails other forms of FGM/FGC such as incising or piercing, burning of the clitoris, cutting of the vagina, pricking, stretching, scratching of the tissue around the vaginal orifice, and the introduction of herbs or corrosive substances into the vagina to initiate bleeding or tighten the vaginal opening (UNFPA par. 2). The most common types of FGM/FGC are Types 1 and 2 and it varies among countries. Type 3 (infibulation) constitutes close to 20% of the affected women and it is common in Djibouti, Somalia and Northern Sudan (UNFPA par. 3). Why Female Genital Mutilation Is Performed Female genital mutilation is usually carried out by various tribes as it believed to be associated with the several beliefs. Different communities have different ways and times of performing the genital mutilation but, girls who are as young as three years old in some communities undergo the process (Macnair par. 9). This process (genital mutilation) is normally performed for certain reasons, some of these reasons include; Psychosexual Reasons Female genital mutilation (FGM) is normally carried out to maintain and control women’s sexuality as uncircumcised women are always seen to be insatiable. Virginity – it is believed that circumcised women stay virgins until they get marriage. Faithfulness – this ensures that women will forever remain faithful to their future husbands. It also helps in increasing male sexual pleasures. Sociological and Cultural Reasons Initiation – circumcision acts as an upgrade to a girl’s life as it initiates her into the womanhood. Heritage – it is an important part in the community’s cultural tradition. Myths – several myths state that the clitoris if not cut grows up to the size of a penis. Fertility – circumcised women are believed to be very fertile (UNFPA par. 12). Hygiene and Aesthetic Reasons Dirty – various cultures treat uncircumcised girls as unclean and treat them even worse (some of the circumcised women refer to the uncircumcised as harlots). Ugly – uncircumcised women are also seen as ugly and they are isolated so as to promote cleanliness and aesthetic appeal. Religious Reasons Female genital mutilation is not allowed by Islam or Christianity but there are various supposed prescripts (an example of this is the mention of ‘Sunna’ in the Koran) that justify the act to a very high level. Socio-Economic Factors Marriage – some communities believe that girls who have undergone female genital mutilation are eligible for marriage. Bad omen to the men – this belief states that men who touch uncircumcised women will die (a man’s penis should not touch the clitoris at all as it is considered to be a taboo). Inheritance – circumcision also acts as a condition that has to be passed before one gets the right to inherit. Economic reasons – it also generates money/ animals (may include goats, pigs, or even poultry) to the practitioners/performers. Because women are dependent on men, it becomes necessary for them to get circumcised for economic reasons (UNFPA par. 12). FGM Prevalence and Distribution It is estimated that 100 million to 140 million women and girls worldwide have experienced female genital cutting/mutilation (FGC/M) and close to 3 million girls at a risk of undergoing the procedure per year on the African region alone. The procedure is performed on girls of the ages between 4 and 12 years; some cultures perform the procedure on children as early as some days after their birth or on adults as late as just near their marriage (Population Reference Bureau 1). FGC/M is practiced in almost 28 countries in Africa and a few countries in the Middle East and Asia. It is practiced at all social classes and all educational levels and it happens among many religious groups such as Christians, Muslims and animists; it is important to note that no religion allows the practice. The prevalence rates vary considerably from one country to the other (in Somalia, the prevalence rate is close to 98% and in Uganda, it is less than 1%) and within the countries (Population Reference Bureau 2). Complications Associated With Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) The physical complications linked with FGM can be chronic or acute. Early and life threatening risks associated with the procedure include shock due to pain or blood loss, failure of the local infection to heal, tetanus, urinary retention, haemorrhage, septicaemia, and trauma to the adjacent structures. Type 3 is linked with urinary tract difficulties or long-term gynaecologic difficulties. Common gynaecologic difficulties entail the formation of keloids and painful subcutaneous dermoid cysts along the edges of the excised tissues. There are also serious complications such as dysmenorrhea, painful intercourse, recurrent urinary tract infection, pelvic infection, hematocolpos, urinary calculus formation and infertility (Committee on Bioethics 154). Significance of FGM in Africa For the Africans who practice FGM, the practice constitutes a testimony to become a member of a certain group. This is true where the method constitutes a part of formality necessary for the initiation into traditional African secret society and/or adulthood. It is argued that the abolition of the practice would destroy the tribal system and as well as the political, cultural, and social cohesion. In some of the societies, FGM has taken a special place in the society and the uncircumcised woman is considered abnormal. In such a case, an uncircumcised woman is not considered a complete adult. In these societies, labia and clitoris are considered as male organs. Thus, the removal of these parts is taken as separation of the sexes in preparation for their future roles in marriage and life (Njoh 97). FGM is considered as a strategy for improving the feminine hygiene and cleanliness. It is important to note that FGM in majority of the African societies is associated with terms related to purification or cleansing, for example, tahur in Sudan; uncircumcised women are taken to be unclean (Njoh 97). Communities that practice female genital mutilation value the practice a lot as it marks a very important part in the women’s life (as it acts as a bridge from childhood to womanhood). FGM is one of the major rites of passage whose purpose is to impart skills and other major information that a woman will require when fulfilling her major duties as a wife and a mother (IRIN In-Depth par. 3). The main purpose of this process regardless of the pain it inflicts (the stitching of the vagina) is to minimize the women’s sexual drive and ensure that she remains a virgin till marriage; the size of the vagina is reduced by stitching it and the intention is to increase the husband’s sexual pleasure (IRIN In-Depth par. 4). Research conducted indicates that women who have undergone FGM have difficulties in penetration and they are associated with pain; the man is not excluded. This is the case for women who have undergone extreme types of FGM (IRIN In-Depth par. 5). Various communities carry out the act because of religious reasons; they believe that their faith requires it (this applies/ is very true to Muslims who hold on to the practice). In other communities, female genitalia is considered to be ugly, dirty or even offensive and should be removed so that a woman may be seen to be more hygienic. It is also believed that the process (FGM) enhances the chances of fertility in women and high chances of child survival (IRIN In-Depth par. 6). All members in the communities who practice FGM have roles in carrying it on. Families of women or girls who have undergone FGM advocate for the practice because their daughters become marriageable; the operation makes sure that daughters have enough bride price and ready suitors (IRIN In-Depth par. 7). Eligible men from communities that practice the female genital mutilation do not value or even consider getting girls who are not circumcised as their wives because FGM makes them culturally and socially. This encourages men to support and encourage it (IRIN In-Depth par. 8). The women in the community have a great role in the practice; they are the ones who arrange and perform it. The procedure is normally arranged by the grandmother or the mother. In Africa the practice is normally performed by midwifes tradition birth attendants or even a known professional circumciser (IRIN In-Depth par. 9). Communities that practice it have no space for any woman who has not undergone through it; uncircumcised women get isolated in these communities and are given certain derogatory names. They are denied the woman’s status in the community and they are regarded as children. In such communities, there are sanctions that are inflicted on the uncircumcised women and her entire family (IRIN In-Depth par. 10). These kinds of communities tend to reward the women with only a few options beyond being a wife and a mother in which there are great pressures to conform to it. The non-educated women are always limited to choices as they have no knowledge at all; the said women are also believed to come from communities that do not yield and encourage various practices like pastoralism, farming or even fishing (IRIN In-Depth par. 11). Controversy over FGM in Africa In the past years, Gambia has become the centre stage of a serious debate surrounding FGM practice. The controversy of FGM in the present Gambia has become more than a public health issue and it has become the main avenue for cultural contested views. Historically, majority of the Gambian girls underwent circumcision in the context of becoming adults and celebration. However, in the recent years, it has become a common phenomenon for the young children to undergo circumcision with little or no ritual accompanying the practice or the transmission of the traditional knowledge. The global campaign for “cutting without ritual” has changed the way the ritual is performed in Gambia. Some of the Gambian women activists have involved themselves with projects that focus on ritual without cutting; in other words, the renewal of the girls’ adolescent initiation without the component of genital cutting (Hernlund and Shell-Duncan 235). As stated earlier, in the past the Gambian girls underwent circumcision as part of their coming to age ritual and it was accompanied by a seclusion that was lengthy. The seclusion served the purposes of both education and ordeal. However, in this age, it is a common practice for the Gambian girls to individually go through the practice with little or no celebration or teaching. Many Gambians wish that the girls can have access to clinic circumcision that is safer just like the boys. However, the Gambian girls are not taken to clinics and hospital for circumcision. The Gambian Medical Association and other activist groups have strongly condemned the medicalization of the practice (FGM) (Hernlund and Shell-Duncan 242). A number of African women believe that they can make independent decisions just like adults in issues such as getting circumcised. They do so because it is the tradition within their community and any suggestion that seems to pressure this issue is scoffed at. The suggestion is rejected on the basis that it is an abuse of their human rights. Thus, some argue that female circumcision is not different from the breast augmentation in West countries; they argue that the procedure is not regarded as an abuse of the woman’s human rights (Packer 76). Despite the fact that FGM/C is a violation of the girls’ and woman’s human rights, it is still practiced in most of the countries (particularly in the Middle East and Africa). The attitudes towards FGM/C are changing in countries such as Egypt, Kenya, Senegal, and Tanzania but it still practiced in these countries (Furphy par. 11). The practice persists because in majority of the cultural traditions, the practice is a social convention (Furphy par. 12). Another reason why the practice persists despite its clear consequences, it is the fact there is a strong connection between circumcision and virginity. It is a method of preventing sexual intercourse before the girl or the woman gets married; this is because the person marrying her demands a woman who is not touched (IRIN par. 3). Works Cited Alexander, L. L., Alexander, W. J., Bader, H., Garfield, S. & Larosa, J. New Dimensions in Women’s Health. Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning, 2009. Print. Althaus, Frances, A. “Female Circumcision: Rite of Passage or Violation of Rights?” International Family Planning Perspectives 23.3 (1997): 130-133. Print. Bacquet, C., Jordan, S. & Moneti, F. Female Genital Cutting Fact Sheet. Womenshealth.gov, 15 Dec. 2009. Web. 10 Aug. 2011. Boyle, Elizabeth, H. Female Genital Cutting: Cultural Conflict in the Global Community. Baltimore, Maryland: JHU Press, 2005. Print. Committee on Bioethics. “Female Genital Mutilation.” American Academy of Pediatrics 102.1 (1998): 153-156. Print. Furphy, Claire. The Eradication of Female Genital Mutilation: A Collective Responsibility. Consultancy Africa Intelligence, 2010. Web. 10 Aug. 2011. Hernlund, Ylva & Shell-Duncan, Bettina. Female “Circumcision” In Africa: Culture, Controversy, and Change. London, UK: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2000. Print. IRIN In-Depth. In-depth: Razor’s Edge – The Controversy of Female Genital Mutilation. IRIN, 1 March 2005. Web. 10 Aug. 2011. IRIN. “IRIN Global.” Interview with Faiza Jama Mohamed. By IRIN, 2005. Print. Macnair, Trisha. Female Genital Mutilation. BBC, Jan. 2011. Web. 10 Aug. 2011. Njoh, Ambe, J. Tradition, Culture and Development in Africa: Historical Lessons for Modern Development Planning. Hants, England: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2006. Print. Packer, Corinne, A. A. Using Human Rights to Change Tradition: Traditional Practices Harmful to Women’s Reproductive Health in Sub-Saharan Africa. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Intersentia nv, 2002. Print. Population Reference Bureau. U.S. Agency for International Development. Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: Data and Trends. 2010. Print. United Nations Population Fund. Promoting Gender Equality. UNFPA, n.d. Web. 10 Aug. 2011. World Health Organization. Female Genital Mutilation. World Health Organization, Feb. 2010. Web. 10 Aug. 2011. Read More