Why Research Methods Are Critically Important to Social Work Research - Term Paper Example

Social work research is a from of scientific inquiry, as such it is an investigation that aims to answer a question in a systematic manner, relying on a predefined set of procedures to collect evidence, and to produce results that were not known of in advance and that can be applied beyond the immediate study (Morris, 2005). As such, social work research investigates psychological issues, preventative interventions, and community, policy and service issues, for the benefit of the individual, the community they live within, policy makers, educators, clinicians and social work consumers in general (Morris, 2005). Social work research utilises a variety of methods to extend understandings of individuals and groups within a society, and sometimes across cultures (Morris, 2005). Research methods are based on scientific enquiry that can be represented by a scientific method. This is a set of procedures used to investigate a research question to acquire new knowledge about the world, or to correct and integrate previous knowledge, using observable and measurable data, which is subject to the laws of reasoning and logic (Morris, 2005). Research methods are employed to control for extraneous variables that may influence the results of measurements, and to guard against investigator bias, or the subjective bias of the participant (Morris, 2005). This paper will present an outline of research method issues that enable the social work researcher to investigate prevention and intervention strategies for individual and community health and welfare. The paper aims to identify reasons why the social work researcher should critically reflect on research findings that result from their studies. Firstly, two important methodological issues shall be highlighted in regards to reliability and validity of a study. Second, the advantages and disadvantages of qualitative and quantitative research methods shall be provided, as well as providing an example of each method type. Next, ethical and power issues relevant to social work research shall be discussed. Finally, a conclusion shall synthesise the main points of the paper that indicate the importance of research methods to the social work researcher. Research methods have a variety of important issues that need to be considered in general. Two dominant issues are: 1) recruitment of the sample; and 2) measurement material. Within social work research, a sample represents a larger population of people with similar characteristics (Russell Bernard, 2004). The sample is a sub-group of people from the target population, or the entire group of possible participants that could take part in the research. A sub-group (sample) is recruited because it is usually unlikely that all eligible respondents of a target population can be included in the study, due to location, economics or time etc (Russell Bernard, 2004). If a sample is truly representative of the target population, then results from the data gathered from the sample can be generalized to that population, as they all share similar characteristics it is assumed that the results will be applicable to the population from which the sample is recruited from (Russell Bernard, 2004). A probability sample increases the chances that a sample will be representative of its population (Russell Bernard, 2004). This is a sample that utilizes a random selection process from within the population. Firstly, all possible respondents within a population must have an equal chance of being recruited. Various forms of random sampling exist, simple methods include choosing numbers from a hat, and more complex methods utilize random number tables or computer software. In contrast, non-probabilistic sampling does not rely on random recruitment of a sample (Russell Bernard, 2004). However, the sample can still be representative of the target population; however the degree of representation is likely to be much lower than a sample recruited on the principles of probability. Within social work research it is sometimes more feasible or practical to use nonprobabilistic sampling. A convenience sample is comprised of people who are conveniently available. A purposive sample is a group of people recruited based on a set of criteria determined before the research begins (Patton, 2002). A popular form of purposive sampling is snowball sampling, wherein participants initially recruited access their social network to refer potential participants to the researcher (Mason, 1997). An advantage of such a technique is that "hidden populations" that may not normally be accessible to a researcher can be tapped into (Shank, 2002). Regardless of the type of sampling technique used, there will always be a degree of sampling error. Sampling error provides an estimate of the accuracy of the final statistical value obtained from the analysis of results. A low sampling error indicates that the sample is fairly homogenous, hence the standard deviation or variability within the sample is low, and so is more likely to be representative of a target population. However, sampling error is also a function of the size of the recruited sample, and the larger the size of the sample, the smaller the size of the sampling error. This is because a larger sample size has more chance to have characteristics that align with the target population. Being able to generalize results from a sample to the target population is termed external validity, that is, the degree to which conclusions drawn from the sample can be applied to the wider population from which the sample was drawn. Materials and apparatus are used to collect observations and measurements from a sample in order to answer the research question. Reliability and validity are inter-related. A material or apparatus consistently take a measurement, yet for each participant consistently take an inaccurate measurement (i.e., reliable but not valid). Another material/apparatus may not take accurate measurements for each participant, but on average reflect an accurate measurement (i.e., a valid group estimate but unreliable). Alternatively the measurement may neither be accurate of the group average or of the individual participants (i.e., neither valid nor reliable). Finally, the measurement may consistently and accurately measure both the individual participant responses and the group average (i.e., reliable and valid). Test-retest (consistency across time), internal consistency (consistency within the test) and parallel forms (consistency of results across two tests of same content) are types of reliability. Face validity (a construct represents what it is meant to), content validity (all dimensions of the construct are represented), predictive validity (the ability for the construct to measure what it is expected to), and convergent validity (the degree to which the construct is similar to other constructs), are forms of validity. Hence, reliability and validity inform whether a material/apparatus consistently measure what they are intended to. There are two broad categories of research methods that can be used within social work research: 1) qualitative and 2) quantitative. Qualitative research aims to understand a research question from the point of view of the participants themselves (Shank, 2002). It is most useful when the investigator wants to gain culturally specific information about beliefs, values and attitudes of populations within specific social contexts (Shank, 2002). The advantage of qualitative research is that it can provide much more insight into the "human" aspect of a topic, as it enquires much more closely into the subjective experiences of the participant (Padget, 2004). As such, qualitative research can provide rich and complex details and descriptions of intangible variables, such as social norms and gender roles. In combination with quantitative data, qualitative data can extend deeper understanding of an issue, and its implications (Shank, 2002). In general, the data collected from the sample is not meant to be generalised to a wider population (Padget, 2004). Materials and apparatus of measurement tend to be field notes, audio and video recordings and transcripts (Shank, 2002). The advantage of quantitative methods is that they results can be generalised to a target population (Maxim, 1999; Murray Thomas, 2003). However, the methods are disadvantaged in that they often require the control of many naturally occurring variables that may also account for data outcomes, and so do not allow research to occur in a natural setting (Maxim, 1999). Participant observation is a type of qualitative research that has the advantage of being able to collect measurements that occur in their natural environment (Mack, Woodsong, MacQueen, Guest, & Namey, 2005). It also allows for gathering data on the physical, sociocultural and economic contexts of a research issue (Mack et al., 2005). Another advantage is that the investigator can become familiar with the cultural milieu in which behaviours take place (Mack et al., 2005). A disadvantage of the participation observation method is that it is extremely time-consuming. Sometimes, investigators are required to spend years in the field collecting data, and so may not always be a practical method (Mack et al., 2005). Also, there is difficulty in recording everything that occurs when the recorder is participating themselves, even with the use of technology (Mack et al., 2005). . Hence, an investigator must rely heavily on their memory, and this involves investigator bias. Subjective interpretations are also a disadvantage as personal biases of what the investigator wants to see can result in inaccurate results (Mack et al., 2005). A quantitative research method is that of the questionnaire. Questionnaires can be an economical way in which to collect large amounts of data (Balnaves, 2001; Murray Thomas, 2003). The method can be used to measure behaviours as well as more subjective responses such as attitudes, beliefs and values by way of self-report of the participants. An advantage of a questionnaire is that it can collect both qualitative and quantitative data, by way of the construction of the questions (Balnaves, 2001). An open question is where more than a yes/no response can be provided. From the sentence answers provided by the respondent the investigator can select key themes to form categories of common responses (Peat, 2002). Questions that provide yes/no answers also provide a categorical level of measurement. These distinct categories of information allow the investigator to determine the frequency of respondents who answer each category that in turn can provide percentages of the sample to answer each category (Peat, 2002; Murray Thomas, 2003). Other questions may ask respondents to rate their response on a Likert scale, (i.e., 1= disagree totally, 2 = slightly disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = slightly agree to 5 = totally agree). These are ordinal levels of measurement and allow the investigator to rank responses. Percentages of respondents can also be gained from these questions, however, the scales can be added together to provide a numerical level of measurement that enables higher statistical tests to be run, such as correlations or ANOVAs (Murray Thomas, 2003). The higher level statistical test enable the investigator to generalise results to a target population with greater precision that with non-numerical level data. The advantage of the questionnaire is that it can be easily administered and it can maintain the privacy of respondents because participant numbers can be assigned instead of personal details. And, in general, they can collect a large amount of data quickly (Murray Thomas, 2003). Also, as all the questions are the same there is a high degree of standardisation of the instrument. Disadvantages of the questionnaire method are that it can be time consuming to construct, as pilot testing is usually required to test and re-test questions to assure their consistency in interpretation (Balnaves, 2001). It is usually necessary that the questionnaire be administered in the participants' first language to decrease the likelihood of misinterpretation of the question. Additionally, results of the questionnaire really only allow description of the research topic, rather than identifying cause and effect (Balnaves, 2001). And often, the return rate of questionnaires can be very low and so skew sample results due to an imbalance of characteristics, or, there is not a large enough sample to enable higher level statistics to be run (Balnaves, 2001). Social work research must consider issue of ethics and power as part of the research process. The first rule of all research is: Do no harm! (Penslar, 1995). As such, it is important that the research process does not negatively impact or disrupt the lives of the participants involved (Mason, 1997). Power is a key issue in the research process (Jones & D'Cruz, 2004; Marshall & Bennet, 2004). For example, in regards to cross-cultural research with indigenous peoples there is a power imbalance deriving from colonialism. Other cultural groups such as youth, homeless, minority groups, immigrants, children, gays and lesbians have also been identified as lacking in power in regards to academic research (Marshall & Bennet, 2004). Colonial cultures have tended to be the traditional holders of power, whether it is in the form of money, access to resources or information (Marshall & Bennet, 2004). Hence, the research relationship between the investigator and participants results in a variety of ethical issues, such as informed consent, research design and ownership of the data and the end results (Marshall & Bennet, 2004). It has been suggested that issues of power are less of concern when an investigator utilises a research method such as participation observation, in that the investigator joins with the community, rather than entering it as an academic, transient, expert (Marshall & Bennet, 2004). The process of informed consent is a key power issue. Informed consent is about participants making a reasonable choice to take part in the study, and agreement to participate implies that the participant's aspirations align with the goals of the research (Mason, 1997; Penslar, 1995). To assure that the participants are fully informed the investigator discusses participant's understandings of the research process (Mason, 1997). Participants, who demonstrate a lack of understanding of what they are agreeing to, are required to be thanked and excused form the research. Informed consent ensures respect for participant dignity, and coercion of the participant is avoided at all costs (Mason, 1997). Informed consent intends to maintain the well being of the participant as its priority. There is also the need for voluntary participation, withdrawal without penalty and assurances of confidentiality and anonymity (Mack et al., 2005; Penslar, 1995). Recent discourse into research ethics advocates that participants be made aware of how the information that they provide shall directly contribute to a sharing of knowledge that will benefit themselves and others. The name and contact details of the investigator must be made available to each participant, in case of research distress following the study, or to enquire further of details regarding the study (Penslar, 1995). Consent forms may not be appropriate for all participants (e.g., missing limbs, illiteracy), and in these cases the investigator, a family member or carer, will sign the consent form for those who are unable to, after they have given oral consent (Mason, 1997). At the completion of the research it is necessary that participants be debriefed and told of the hypotheses. Also, recent research ethics discourse states that participants should be provided with a summary of the results, and outcomes of the study, following thesis submission. Overall social work research has the responsibility as a scientific profession to enhance human well-being, autonomy and empowerment, especially of those who are vulnerable, oppressed or living in poverty (Jones & D'Cruz, 2004; Marshall & Batten, 2004). Social worker research has an ethical obligation to promote social change in cooperation with, and on behalf of, their participants and "clients". As such, it is necessary that the social research worker maintain cultural sensitivity and seek to avoid discrimination, oppression and other forms of social injustice (Marshall & Batten, 2004). In conclusion, it is evident that research methods are critically important to social work research, and that it is necessary for the social work researcher to reflect upon their study outcomes. This paper emphasised that sampling techniques and materials and apparatus used to take measurements as important methodological issues. Each issue is vital to contributing to the reliability and validity of a study that in turn influences the degree of confidence an investigator can place in their conclusions. Both qualitative and quantitative research methods have their place in social work research, and the investigator must choose the method which has strengths that suit the context of the research question, and weaknesses that will not detract from accurate measurement. Ethical and power issues must also be considered during the research process, these issues are perhaps most salient when undertaking cross-cultural research, that involves interaction with minority groups or the vulnerable, oppressed or the poor. The process of informed consent is an ethical consideration that seeks to maintain the autonomy and dignity of the participant, by way of voluntary participation, withdrawal without penalty and assurances of confidentiality and anonymity. It is anticipated that the study of research methods will enable the social worker researcher to effectively and ethically critically analyse their study results and implications of their findings. References Balnaves, M. (2001). Introduction to quantitative research methods. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Jones, M. & D'Cruz, H. (2004). Social work research: Ethical and political contexts. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Mack, N., Woodsong, C., MacQueen, K. M., Guest, G., & Namey, E. (2005). Qualitative Research Methods: A Data Collector's Field Guide. Retrieved 26th April, 2006 from: http://www.fhi.org/en/RH/Pubs/booksReports/QRM_datacoll.htm Mason, J. (1997). Qualitative researching: An introductory text. New York: Sage Publications. Marshall, A., & Batten, S. (2004). Researching across cultures: Issues of ethics and power. Forum Qualitative Social Research, 5(3). Maxim, P. S. (1999). Quantitative research methods in the social sciences. USA: Oxford University Press. Morris, T. (2005). Social work research methods. New York: Sage Publications. Murray Thomas, R. (2003). Blending quantitative and qualitative research methods. London: Corwin Press. Padget, D. K. (2004). The qualitative research experience. Thompson Learning: Southbank Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Peat, J. (2002). Health sciences research: A quantitative handbook. New York: Sage Publications. Penslar, R. L. (Ed.) (1995). Research ethics: cases and materials. Indiana University Press: Bloomington. Russell Bernard, H. (2004). Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. New York: Sage Publications. Shank, G. D. (2002) Qualitative research: a personal skills approach. Columbus: Merrill/Prentice Hall. Read More