English and Islam: A Clash of Civilizations - Literature review Example

Article Summary and Response By module of college Department 20 March 20, Summary of Article 1 Mohd-Asraf (2005) unearths the conflicts and tensions between English and Islam from a language learning point of view. The author argues that even though there is resistance among Muslims in learning English due to its conflict with Islamic values things have started changing. The article throws light on the Islamic perspective toward English and pinpoints how English learning is inevitable for the Muslim community in Malaysia to acquire contemporary knowledge. The article also exhorts English teachers to take into account the socio-cultural aspects of Muslim learners while teaching them English. The author makes an extensive literature review of the images of English among Muslims. English language has been perceived as a tool for imperialism among Muslim countries and many fear that teaching English literature would spread Western values and cultures among their citizens. Teaching English would expose Muslim children towards a totally different foreign language, culture, tradition and values that are contrary to their cultural and religious upbringing (Mohd-Asraf 2005, p. 105). The author also observes that Malaya Muslims’ perceptions of English are also similar to other Muslim countries. For instance, a significant study carried out by Ozóg (1989) among 50 undergraduate students at the International Islamic University Malaysia reveal that “all 50 students believed that English was the means through which Western culture entered the country” (Mohd-Asraf 2005, p. 106). Similarly, Malay Muslim students regard English as a colonial language which could affect their culture. From a religious point of view English learning is associated with Christianity and is regarded as not being Muslim. On the other hand, there are others who believe that learning a foreign language will not affect their cultural identity and value systems. The article also offers a brief history of the spread of English language in Malaysia. Even though Malaysia is a multicultural multi-religious country more than 60 percentage of its total population are Muslims of whom Malay Muslims are the largest group. It is interesting to note that English had been used as the medium of instruction in English medium schools prior to and more than a decade after the nation’s independence. English during the period was regarded as a prestige language spoken by the elites and privileged groups. However, by 1982 all schools in the nation used Malay as the medium of instruction even though English remained as a second language as one of the subjects in the curriculum (Mohd-Asraf 2005, p. 108). Many Muslim parents were afraid that “learning English might lead to their children becoming more westernized, which is seen as something negative if it contradicts Islamic teachings or principles” (Mohd-Asraf 2005, p. 110). However, today one can notice a clear shift in the Malay Muslim attitudes towards English. Today, students have started ‘recognizing the utilitarian value of English.’ Similarly, most of the students today do not think that English learning will hamper their cultural values and cultural identity. Many perceive language as a mere tool for communication and argue that one need not have to reject a language because of its culture. Thus the notion that English is language of the non-Muslims is out rightly rejected today. On the other hand, English language is viewed as a necessary prerequisite for personal and professional growth. Mohd-Asraf thus concludes that Muslims in Malaysia need to realize the significance of English as proficiency in English is essential “not only in terms of employment but also in terms of career and social advancement” (Mohd-Asraf 2005, p. 115). This has also been emphasized by the Malaysian government, the Ministry of Education, and the media. The author observes that the inherent fear of the Malaysian Muslim community that learning English would hamper their Islamic worldview and cultural values is quite pointless. No doubt, the values and worldview perpetuated by Western civilization contradicts that of the Muslim community. However, as the author purports, it is possible for the Malaysian community to learn and “to be highly proficient in English and still maintain one’s identity as a Muslim” (Mohd-Asraf 2005, p. 116). Thus, the argument that Malaysians will be westernized or secularized by learning English is quite one-sided. Response (p. 113, Third paragraph) The paragraph in fact summarizes the major points raised by Mohd-Asraf all throughout the essay. The opening sentence of the paragraph makes it clear that there are strong evidences today that suggest the changing negative attitudes towards English among Malay Muslims. The rest of the paragraph offers a number of substantiating evidences and examples to prove this fact. The author makes it clear that even though there is a minority of Malay Muslims who still regard English as the language of the Christians or of the colonialists the majority has realized the significance of English language. The number of Malay Muslims who wish to learn English language has considerably increased due to the greater opportunities in terms of employment, career choices and social advancement. The authors also emphasizes the fact that the Malaysian government, the Ministry of Education, and the media today have taken conscious efforts to promote English learning within the nation. The paragraph in particular and the article in general challenge the basic assumption that learning English language is anti-Muslim and that it would westernize or secularize the Malay Muslims. The opponents of English language learning argue that this would destroy the unique Malay Muslim identity which will be replaced by Western culture and values. The liberal western values are sharply in contrast to the Islamic worldview and as such many perceive that English has the potential to shake the basic foundations of the cultural and religious upbringing of the Muslims which have their roots in Islamic teachings or principles. However, the author cites a number of examples to prove that the Malay community can learn English and be proficient in English while keeping their cultural identity and religious upbringing intact. A critical reading of the article convinces one that today there is no apparent clash between Islam and English even though a minority of conservatives and religious fanatics are against teaching their children English. One needs to read this resentment in connection with the US attacks on the Arab and Muslim community. The emergence of globalization and increasing transnational relations has in fact broken all sorts of cultural or linguistic barriers. English today has assumed the stature of a global language that unites various cultures, civilizations, nationalities and borders. However, historical evidences convince one that the Islamic worldview as well as the principles and teachings of Islam are still influential among Muslim nations which clearly points out that one does not assimilate the culture or ideologies of a foreign nation merely by learning its language. The article thus exhorts the Muslim community to learn English language as it offers them a key to the global world and take them to the wide horizons of modern-day knowledge. Similarly, learning a foreign language will facilitate multicultural education and respect for other cultures. The article provides one a clear picture of the Islamic perspectives on language learning and this is really useful for second language teaching within the nation. The article thus stresses on the need to take into account the socio-cultural aspects of Muslim learners while teaching them English. Summary of Article 2 Mucherah (2008) conducted a remarkable study among 208 immigrants to the United States to examine the challenges their children face in maintaining and using their native language. The study also examined the participants’ perceptions on both the English language and their native language. The article also seeks to identify the factors that either enhance or hinder the learning and use of the native language of immigrant children. At the very outset of the article the author makes it clear that the large number of non-English immigrant population often learn English at the expense of their native languages and many find it extremely difficult to preserve their native languages in the United States (Mucherah 2008, p. 188). Very often immigrant children pay paramount attention to English as this is the medium of instruction whereas they receive very limited opportunity to maintain their native language proficiency. While many suggest bilingual education as the only possible solution for the immigrant population to maintain their community culture and language it is fact that in the United States bilingual education targets languages such as Spanish or French whereas minorities from African or Indian languages do not have any scope for bilingual education. The participants for the study consisted of 208 immigrant parents in the United States who had lived at least four years within the nation. All of them were born and brought up outside the US: 84 had lived in the US for “4 4 to 8 years, 86 for 9 to 13 years, and 41 for 14 or more years” (Mucherah 2008, p. 192). Their children were either born in the US (95 children), in their native country (73 children), or in another country (42 children). The participants were asked to fill My Native Language Scale- an 18-item survey with two additional open-ended and 7 demographic questions. The survey questions addressed such variables as their length of stay in the US, the number of times they visited their native land, the place of birth of their children, children’s ages, their perception of the native language, their perceptions of the English language, their perceptions of the native language in relation to their children, and the factors they thought would either enhance or hinder their children’s learning and use of their native language (Mucherah 2008, p. 192). The results of the study clearly demonstrate that even though the immigrants receive little opportunity to use their native language in the immigrant nation they perceive their language quite positively and take genuine efforts to impart their native language to their children alongside English (Mucherah 2008, p. 188). The study also revealed that immigrant population has positive perceptions on the English language as well. The study showed that children who are born in the native country and who pay occasional visits to their native land are more likely to learn and maintain their native language than their counterparts who are born in the US and seldom visits their homeland. However, it is a fact that even though immigrant parents desire for their children to learn their native language it is not so in actual practice. It has well been documented by the researcher when he observes that “immigrants’ positive perception of their native language does not necessarily guarantee the use and therefore maintenance of their native language” (Mucherah 2008, p. 201). The results also show that accesses to other native speakers, exposure to native language media and participation in cultural events have a positive bearing on the use of immigrants’ native language. Similarly, barriers to native language proficiency consist of predominance of English language, lack of opportunity for bilingualism, lack of support from parents, friends or spouse, lack of access to other native speakers and limited visits to the native country. Response (p. 200, last paragraph) The paragraph assumes great significance in the article as it deals with the factors that either enhance or hinder the use of native language among the immigrant population in the United States. It is evident from the article that even though the participants possess higher positive perception of their native language this does not guarantee the use and maintenance of their children’s native language. As such the only possible way to promote the use of native language among children of the immigrant population is by promoting factors that enhanced the use of native language while minimizing factors that hindered native language use. The researchers identified a number of factors that enhanced the use of their children’s native language and these factors are broadly categorized into five major categories: speaking native language, Media, cultural events and festivals, interaction with other native speakers, and visiting the native country (Mucherah 2008, p. 200). Activities such as reading books, listening to news or music, and watching plays, films, or TV programs in the native language come under the category of Media. While children who are born in their native countries and occasionally pay visit to their home country tend to maintain their native languages children who are born in the United States with no grandparents or siblings to communicate in their native language often leave aside their native language and culture. Similarly, children find it extremely difficult to use their native language when one of the parents is from the immigrant nation. In fact, these conclusions of the study offer immigrant parents the cue on how to promote the native language proficiency of their children. The immigrant parents can never expect their children to learn and use their native language unless and until they offer them sufficient exposure to the language in all the five categories mentioned above. It is also worthwhile for the immigrant parents to have a thorough understanding of the factors that hinder the use of native language. The paragraph throws light on the major barriers that would prevent the use of one’s native language. The major barriers to the use of the native language as reported by the participants are “dominance of the English language, fear of isolation, not having peers, friends and a spouse who speak the same native language, not visiting the native country occasionally, and lack of regular interaction with other native speakers” (Mucherah 2008, p. 200). A language community is essential for the learning of any language and in the case of immigrant population they themselves have to create a native linguistic community where they can listen to and communicate in their native language. Very often, immigrant children who are born in the United States do not cherish any sort of emotional attachment to their native language or culture due to the presence of the aforementioned barriers. A large majority of immigrant children born in the United States do not pay frequent visits to their native land, a factor that acts as the strongest deterrent of native language use among them. It can therefore be concluded that immigrant parents have a pivotal role in instilling native language affinity among their children from their early childhood onwards. Summary of Article 3 Coffey & Street (2008) try to show how life history accounts, construction of cultural worlds and narrative strategies contribute towards the language learning project. The article offers fresh insights on second language acquisition (SLA) as well as the teaching and learning of foreign languages. The researchers regard the language learner as ‘a participating social agent’ and purport that it is worthwhile to analyze the first-person accounts of the language learning process of second language learners. The aim of the researchers is to analyze individual learners’ subjective experiences in the language learning project and how such autobiographical accounts of language learning are part of their social and cultural narratives (Coffey & Street 2008, p. 456). The researchers employ a life narrative approach to know through their first-person accounts how Sue and Paul, two British U.K residents, have acquired proficiency in foreign languages. While Sue learned French even without spending an extended period of time abroad Paul mastered German while he was working in Germany as an English teacher and technical translator. The research design consisted of two parts- brief written narratives (language learning life stories) and interviews. During the first part the participants were asked to make a written account on ““a language learning autobiography” with minimal prompts on the process of their foreign language learning. Paul’s written account consisted of 1,975 whereas Sue’s was 3,044 words in length (Coffey & Street 2008, p. 456). This was followed by a semi-structured interview session with each participant that were taped and transcribed. The researchers could find considerable differences and contradictions between the two discourses. Therefore, follow-up interviews were held to encourage them to “to talk about how they identified themselves as characters, how they represented the experience of time abroad and contact with target-language speakers and the target-language culture, and how their language learning project had influenced and been influenced by wider, non-(formally)educational aspects of their life” (Coffey & Street 2008, p. 456). Very often, during the interview both Sue and Paul employed vivid pictures and cultural stereotypes to describe their autobiographical language learning project within the French and German cultures. Similarly, while describing their turning points in life both construct their liberating experiences abroad in the target language and culture. In the same way, one can find the participants contrasting their new experiences with old ones and the interviews clearly demonstrate how language learning has brought about crucial changes in their lives that helped them to develop their potential and realize self-fulfillment (Coffey & Street 2008, p. 458). The researchers also point out how both Sue and Paul reconstruct and romanticize their youthful anecdotes during their language learning project. At another instance one finds Sue creating a persona of “a chameleon” and “an actress” identifying herself with a social model of a language learning type while Paul constructs the narrative identity of an “adventurer” (Coffey & Street 2008, p. 460). The researchers also point out how Paul employs inserted direct speech as a powerful storytelling strategy during the interview. Similarly, both Paul’s and Sue’s narratives are placed in different cultural and social contexts when they describe their past and present selves. Thus, the researchers purport that “individuals construct their experience of language learning by drawing on a range of cultural narratives that are founded in figured worlds” (Coffey & Street 2008, p. 462). The researchers thus conclude the article by emphasizing the significance of narrative inquiry and autobiographical identity project in foreign language learning. The researchers advocate analyzing foreign language learners’ self-reports making use of an ethnographic perspective and narrative frame. Response (p. 454, second paragraph) The paragraph is significant in the article as it shows the reader how a language learner constructs a personal identity through specific narrative resources and how analysis of such life history accounts would benefit second language acquisition. The paragraph throws light on such concepts as life history accounts, construction of cultural worlds and narrative strategies that contribute towards the language learning project of both Sue and Paul. The paragraph is an extension of the introductory paragraph of the article where the authors introduce such concepts as the social processes of learning, analysis of the first-person accounts of the language learning process, the narrative process of the human mind, and language learning as an identity project. In fact, the paragraph offers a theoretical insight on the life narrative approach employed by the researchers to know the first-person accounts of both Sue and Paul on their foreign language learning. The paragraph deals with the significance of life history accounts for a language learner. According to the researchers life history accounts reveal “how the language learner constructs a model of personal identity through time and how this personal identity is seen as constructed through specific narrative resources” (Coffey & Street 2008, p. 454). The researchers also point out that social understanding and exposure to the given cultural or social world exert great influence on one’s discursive narratives. The language learner at times identifies with the outer cultural or social world and integrates bilingual and bicultural identities into his life history accounts. However, each language learner develops a self fashioned identity in the process of learning a foreign language. Both Sue and Paul narrate their self-fashioned identity when they describe their autobiographical language learning project within the French and German cultures. One can also find both the participants reconstructing and romanticizing their youthful anecdotes. Similarly, Sue creates the persona of “a chameleon” and “an actress” while Paul constructs the narrative identity of an “adventurer” during their interview narratives. To conclude, it can be stated that Coffey and Street attempt to modify or rethink traditional motivation approaches in second language acquisition and emphasizes on the significance of the first-person accounts of the language learning process. One needs to bear in mind that each individual learns second language in his own unique way building on his self-fashioned identity. That is why the authors regard the process of learning a foreign or second language as an individual autobiographical language learning project within specific narrative cultures. However, the results of the study cannot be applied to a larger population due to the smallness of the sample population. However, the current study offers scope for further comprehensive and in-depth studies in this regard. The insights offered by the researchers are likely to bring about desirable changes in second language acquisition as well. References Coffey, S & Street, B 2008, ‘Narrative and Identity in the “Language Learning Project”’, The Modern Language Journal, 92, pp. 452–464. Mohd-Asraf, R 2005, ‘English and Islam: A Clash of Civilizations?’ Journal of Language, Identity, and Education, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 103–118. Mucherah, W 2008, ‘Immigrants’ Perceptions of their Native Language: Challenges to Actual Use and Maintenance’, Journal of Language, Identity, and Education, vol. 7, pp. 188–205. Read More