History of Forensic Science - Term Paper Example

 History of Forensic Science Forensic science is the application of a variety of scientific tools to help in responding to the critical questions of interest to a legal system, which may be related to criminal acts or civil litigation. Today forensic science can be referred to as forensics and it is related to the courts since it assist in the investigations against a crime (Gilmore, Peakall, & Robertson, 2003). Historically, forensic science has allowed for tremendous development it was invented that the human chromosome had 48 of the cells of which the right number of 46 was established the same year. Presently the there is chromosome painting which enables any individual who is able to identify colors to distinguish them and this forms the basis that the chromosomes could not be identified initially. The scientist who published the wrong number of chromosomes to be 48 made another error in 1930 when he made a suggestion that mongolism as it was called then was caused by an extra chromosome and even went ahead to submit a chromosomal material to a painter. The error was detected when the painter could not find any unusual distinction because the scientist did not see the extra chromosome 21 (Gilmore, Peakall, & Robertson, 2003). In addition, the faults resulted from the primitive scientific methods of the time and not the painters eyesight, this was proved on the onset of the discovery of the mysterious salivary glands chromosomes in the drosophila larvae. According to Schneider, (2007), it is also important to note that a serious discovery of the Chemical mutagenesis had been found during the world war but unearthed in the 1950’s. a series of recombination of bacteria and viruses took place in 1950 to result into formal genetics and this lead to the homing of the gene. Although the evidence of DNA had come out strongly, most scientists still thought that a gene was a mere protein. Before it could be realized the Watson - Crick Model came and immediately followed by the central dogma, which could aid in the cracking of the genetic material, this helped the geneticists to know that DNA of a chromosome was a single molecule. It is quite interesting to note that the DNA is a single molecule despite the fact that it posses the ability quite a large amount of information as demanded by the highly complex gene. The DNA molecule is as well quite long. The inventions realized in past period could not be practicated instantly until another third of the century in 1985 when the tools of forensics were applied hence a new dawn identified in for law enforcement through forensics, this propelled the FBI to start using DNA id the year 1998 (Gilmore, Peakall, & Robertson, 2003). The recent history can therefore be divided into two periods that is from other third of a century 1985-1995. In this period, the VNTRs dominated the scene though it was not that frequently used due to the existence of other convenient options like the DQ and the polymarker. The VNTR demand for higher volumes of DNA made it less preferable (Schneider, 2007). The VNTR also proved to be quite huge and could not be easily changed by PCR making the shorter STRs to dominate the second period from the year 1995. It is in record that the FBI settled to using the 13 STR loci and core loci, which were dominantly used in major laboratories enabling the feasibility of the international comparisons. Initially DNA was highly controversial and courts found it hard to accept it, which prompted a study by the National Academy of Sciences, which resulted into a report that DNA use, ought to be moratorited. Another principle called the ceiling with worthy objectives was brought to book though it faced a lot of criticism. In the history of forensic science, a big mistake was committed in the year 1996 through are port which emphasized much on VNTR as opposed to STRs, the report was conservative just a mere o.03 usage of STR (Gilmore, Peakall, & Robertson, 2003). Data quoted depicted a consensus with Hardy-Weinberg options for a suggested single locus and with a balance for two or three loci. A formula was given taking into account a substructure that provided for a rough and empirical margin of error. This gave a validation for a realistic than the formal tests of statistic base binomially. Today forensic science is widespread in the state found in a substantive 50 state databases. Major transformations have been witnessed with migrations from VNTR to STRs. The use and application is expected to tremendously rise when more money is injected within the next few years (Frumkin, Wasserstrom, Davidson, & Grafit, 2010). Changes and methodologies in forensic pathology In the recent past forensic science has received diverse changes in a variety of fields’ right from genetics, methodologies for crime investigation and toxicology (Frumkin, Wasserstrom, Davidson, & Grafit, 2010). Forensic pathology has not evolved much though as it still applies event based methodologies that were implemented several years ago. Such methodologies entail; dissection of corpse, oral description of event occurrence and physical documentation of research finding ad outcomes. In the past decades, all the above methodologies have been augmented hence replaced by photography. In addition, new possibilities became available for forensic pathologists due to the improvement of technologies in medicine such as the advent of the computed tomography (CT). the CT project was introduced in the year 1970 with it first scan being performed on a gunshot victim as at 1977, the project has since been applauded by a series of scientists worldwide who stresses on its usefulness in forensic medicine (Schneider, 2007). Apart from the conventional medicine being employed widely in forensic medicine, modern clinically established methods like magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) method and CT have since gained popularity apart from struggling with the challenge of a lag in forensic implementation. Such a challenge is unwanted in the sensitive filed where the legal system all depends on the same to validate the happening of particular crimes by test through novel methods depending on the nature of the crime. To bring a bust in the field of forensic medicine and pathology, the Transdisciplinary research project Virtopsy is committed to implementing the modern techniques to offer alternative methods in forensic pathology, which is reliant on three pillars. The 3D surface scanning as a documentation technique, secondly there is the Multislice computed Tomography (MSCT) and MRI to help in viewing of the internal body. The pillars apart from just helping in obtaining accuracy, three dimensionality, and provision of conventional documentation, the techniques can still be applied in re-examining the bodies and crime scenes many years after their occurrence. This is believed to have the impact of improving forensics through its virtual and minimally invasive approach (Frumkin, Wasserstrom, Davidson, & Grafit, 2010). Successes and Failures in forensic pathology According to Gilmore, Peakall, & Robertson, (2003), forensic pathology as a field in science is full of successes and failures, it is important to stress that this scientific application is advisable for investigations rather than confirmation, which has lead to most of its failures most so in the legal systems. The most recent failure is that which the program misses an autopsy disease resulting into a homicidal death due to historically based evidence. Researches from recently published journals indicate that forensic pathology is an idea whose time had come. Forensic pathology has experienced a boost in terms of progress, influence, and transformation of the field of forensics. The scientific aspect of pathology has ensured that each of its branches in forensics are widely developed, refined, and advanced in terms of the extensive knowledge base and expertise. Forensic pathology has experienced a bust in terms of enriching its research facets coupled with frequent publications and debates. Through the adoption of the most modern technology, which ensures that there is the ability of international exchange of ideas in the international arena, has made the field of forensic a suitable playing ground of forensic pathology (Schneider, 2007). Through scientific rigor, forensic pathology has been in the position of strengthening itself through its engagement in diverse range of activities as it helps humanity in terms of performing concerns to both victims and perpetrators (Inman & Rudin, 2002). In this perspective, forensic pathology has been of much success in helping victims off accidents in accidents and emergency departments of hospitals, high security psychiatry hospitals, in homes and in the streets, in the justice corridors and so forth. The major failure of the scientific application is the limitation that witnesses in its scope of application and most specifically to human tragedy that causes harm posing the obvious challenge of realizing an occasion to relate to forensic pathology (Schneider, 2007). The field therefore needs the investment by governments in the in terms of funding and work force. Advances in technology and the limitations of evidence vs. forensic pathology Forensic science as one of the ways through which law has been viewed as useless has adopted procedures to make law be seen as scientific and applicable amidst the technological advances (Inman & Rudin, 2002). This is evident when the technological advancements in terms of forensic pathology is applied in undertaking investigations and confirmation of charges in law courts. Both forensic and surgical pathologists perform operations on the bodies affected producing autopsy reports that can be used in courts of law for evidence. Despite the belief accorded to such reports by those who rely on them such as the DNA, tests and hair comparisons, the reports have at times been compromised hence exoneration of convicts some of whom were guilty of cold blood murder (Gilmore, Peakall, & Robertson, 2003). Several studies indicates that such forms of judicial miscarriages are often caused by scientific fraud and junk science. This therefore indicates the failure presented by crime labs and some forensic techniques. Other cases involved incompetence of the medics involved and poor procedures while on the other hand we experience deceit. DNA undertakings have though been frequently regulated with several questionable forensic techniques posing a challenge in terms of regulation (Gilmore, Peakall, & Robertson, 2003). Professionalizing forensic science must take a long way right from accreditizing the crime labs, examiners being certified individuals and the written protocols being standardized and promulgated (Capelli, Tschentscher, & Pascali, 2003). Furthermore, there ought to be a quality assurance program that involves proficiency testing and extensive audits by external bodies. Finally, reform agenda in the legal systems, which depend on the forensics, ought to be sinitiated with well-established forensic commission accorded all the necessary judicial facets and powers to implement the reforms. With all these in place plus inclusion of modern technological tools, the conviction or acquittal of a defendant will be quite efficient (Inman & Rudin, 2002). Importance and limitations of forensic science for police work Arguing as to whether forensics if important or not to the police work now or in the future is not intelligent. This form of science is applied in too many different ways, as there is much cost involved in using the other alternative ways available. Forensic science is therefore applicable today and in future as a complement to police work today and is expected to be used in the future as well. The only argument should hence be the way among the numerous ways that can be used to improve on the forensic based often-made decisions. It is important to note that the measurement of the effectiveness and efficiency in terms of how useful forensic science is on police work has been quite problematic (Capelli, Tschentscher, & Pascali, 2003). This is because the measurements from such investigations need to give two and only two conditions that are the reports need to be valid and reliable. Reliability on one hand relates to consistency, which requires the evidence to be adduced severally, hence validity and reliability can a no point relate since validity on its own tends to relate the measurements conducted to the situation being examined (Schneider, 2007). The way forward concerning forensics and the future of police work entails looking for ways in which efficiency can be improved by strengthening the current weaknesses. Research indicates that there is a procedure of attendance to an investigative process if there is an increased benefit required due to the investments made in forensics within the police force and relating to external suppliers of the services. With the incorporation of all the parties involved through the established guidelines, the outcomes from the use of forensic science for investigation by police would be quite efficient in value achievement (Inman & Rudin, 2002). References Capelli, C., Tschentscher, F., & Pascali, V. (2003). "Ancient" protocols for the crime scene?: Similarities and differences between forensic genetics and ancient DNA analysis. Forensic Science International, 131(1), 59-64. Frumkin, D., Wasserstrom, A., Davidson, A., & Grafit, A. (2010). Authentication of forensic DNA samples. Forensic Science International: Genetics, 4(2), 95-103. Gilmore, S., Peakall, R., & Robertson, J. (2003). Short tandem repeat (STR) DNA markers are hypervariable and informative in Cannabis sativa: implications for forensic investigations.. Forensic Science International, 131(1), 65-74. Inman, K., & Rudin, N. (2002). The origin of evidence. Forensic Science International, 126(1), 11-16. Schneider, P. (2007). Scientific standards for studies in forensic genetics. Forensic Science International, 165(2-3), 238-243. Read More