Theory as the Distinguishing Feature in Scientific Enterprise - Coursework Example

Theory as the Distinguishing Feature in Scientific Enterprise Name: Course: Tutor: Date: Theory as the Distinguishing Feature in Scientific Enterprise Introduction A theory is an analytical tool for explaining, understanding and predicting events in a given phenomena. Theory is the accord, plan, agreement, idea, story, or set of laws and policies that are often used to inform a behavior or certain phenomena. The usage of theory in describing any behavior, phenomena or, happening is based on generalizations that are universally accepted. Theories are made of sets of sentences which are presumed to be true about the given phenomena under consideration. They are points of view put together to deduce a plan of action or a model. However, the truth of the expressions in any theory depends on the theory under considerations. In this sense one expression may be accurate in the context of one theory and inaccurate in the context of another. A field of study is sometimes seen as a theory because the basis of such a field of study is some initial set of assumptions demonstrating the field’s approach to a certain subject matter. The assumptions are basic theorems of the particular theory and usually stand out as the axiom of that field. Theory will have different meanings when analyzed from different phenomena based on the role it plays in their development. In a scientific approach, a theory is an analytical structure meant for identifying a set of certain distinct happenings as a class and making emphatic explanations about the underlying truth that makes or influences this class. A scientific theory constitutes a pool of concepts, including generalized observations demonstrated as quantifiable characteristics together with proven laws that show the connections between the concepts observed. Scientific theories are well-proven explanations of some happenings or states of the natural word, which have their basis on certain established facts that are repeatedly confirmed through experiments and, observations. These fact-supported theories are the reliable accounts of nature and not just guess. For instance, the biological theory of evolution is more than “just a theory”. It is a factual explanation of the world just like the germ theory of disease or the atomic theory of matter. The theory of gravity is still a research work in progress. But the observable fact of gravity, just like evolution, is a universally accepted fact. Theory in Science In the field of scientific enterprise, theory is generally applied in a wide sense to imply any kind of discussion that is abstract in nature. In a more technical sense it is frequently used to mean structured ideas, concepts, statements or models that are necessary in making understandable in a certain approach, a specified set of phenomena. Thus, a theory is an assertion that accounts for causes or interactions between phenomena. Scientists will constantly come up with theories to explain their observations, findings and generalized thoughts about any phenomena or innovations. In most instances any findings not supported by a certain theory have been highly criticized, disregarded or seen to be misleading and, unacceptable especially if such findings are a contradiction of an existing theory that is highly factual. Through theory, most scientific descriptions are so well established and detailed such that no new verification or finding is likely to change them. The explanations develop into scientific theory. In each day language a theory means an intuition of supposition. However, this is not the case in scientific enterprise. In science, theory will mean a broad explanation of an important aspect of nature sustained by facts collected over time. Theories also enable scientists to make forecasts at present about unobserved phenomena. Based on this definition of theory, sciences have a primary advantage in that any aspect of nature regarded as scientific theory is well supported by evidence. The lack or inadequacy of evidence would be a disadvantage in explaining discussions among scientists who often use the word theory to illustrate untried but complex hypotheses in adding up to confirmed models. However, in learning or mass gathering scenery it is definite that everything of the outline of a theory is exceedingly well supported and, sound tested theory. This brings about the theory-non theory distinctions which directly track the distinctions useful for users of scientific studies. Bernard and Ritti (1990) argue that “theory alone is the distinguishing feature of the scientific enterprise.” They hold that theory stands out as the backbone of scientific enterprise. In their argument they try to demonstrate the role of theory in uniting other parameters in development of scientific enterprise. Theory stands out as a tool for guiding the measurement, evaluation and analysis of the methodological developments of science. Although, other features such as quantification, analytical tools and methodological approaches are important, the development of science will not be complete if not supported by an empirical theory (Bernard and Ritti, 1990). A realistic and in-depth analysis in the nature of scientific development demonstrates that theory, in either formal or informal logic, is totally applicable through step by step investigative procedure from the initial data collection stages to its interpretation. The long-standing appreciation of the importance of theory in scientific enterprise by researchers has greatly improved their literature. For a long time, researchers have taken the term ‘scientific knowledge’ to mean proven knowledge which is ascertained through the power of reasoning or by the evidence of sanity. For this reason, integrity of scientific knowledge requires scientists to abstain from unconfirmed declarations and reduce, even in their thoughts, the variance between speculation and, actual determined facts. The proving ability of human senses and their use in science has been criticized by skeptics but the advancement of more scientific theories on the subject has overcome such criticism. The use of theory in scientific enterprise has helped in ensuring continuity of knowledge form one generation to another. Through theory, scientific innovations and findings can be explained and taught in different institutions of learning. In the learning process, learners are able to understand how the science or subject under consideration came into being. The circumstances that necessitated or contributed to the invention of the subject are analytically evaluated through the use of available theories. Through comparisons the theories’ applicability to current scenarios is evaluated to determine if they are relevant or have been rendered irrelevant by the development of new sciences. In middle level schools and in institutions of higher learning such as universities, theories explaining sciences are meant to inspire and efficiently communicate the findings of early researchers. Instructors use various methods in transferring this knowledge to learners. For instance, scientific tests can be done in laboratories through the step by step explanations explained in any theory to approve or disapprove the theory and foster learning and, increase knowledge among the learners. Theory Design Theories on certain phenomena may appear complex due to the kind of wording that is used by the researchers. Some scientists may use hard terms in development of their theories which may need an in depth explanation for users to be able to learn and apply the theories profitably. In the development of scientific enterprise, a theory will have different roles in the writings of individual theorists depending on the purpose for which the specific study is meant for. For this reason, theories may either be descriptive, explanatory, predictive and or analytical based on the scientists’ focus. A scientist will determine the role a theory is to accomplish in his study after considering the prevailing situations during his study, the target audience and the field application of his scientific findings. However, some theories may be designed to meet the four roles; explanatory, analytical, descriptive and, predicting the unknown (Johnson, 2008). In science, explanatory theories are used where there are no similar writings explaining certain phenomena. Scientists may also use these theories where the few writings that are available are weak and inadequate in explaining a specific state of nature. Explanatory scientific theories are intended to look into models, thoughts or assumptions not necessarily to investigate, approve or, disapprove hypotheses that form them. The focus of these theories is mainly in helping users to gain understanding and get accustomed with their application. These theories draw reference from other similar theories in trying to promote a good understanding of the subject under consideration. Descriptive theories are used in scientific enterprise to describe nature as it appears. Through descriptive research, scientists are able to identify, acquire and, categorize data on any phenomena. Descriptive theories usually try to answer the basic questions which one can ask in their trial to express any scenario as it appears. In their development of science, descriptive theories are based on observations carried out by the researcher. Data is collected through observation and where applicable quantified and summarized through statistical analysis. Descriptive theories are more advanced than explanatory theories in that they help researchers in determination and description of natural features. The use of analytical theories is also very popular with modern scientists. Science is founded on analytical theories analyze and give explanations as to how events on any subject matter are happening and why. These theories not only describe phenomena but also help in understanding nature by determining and evaluating any correlations in the field under study. Analytical theories are used to answer questions in the nature of ‘how and why’ about the phenomena under research. Scientists have also invested in the use of predictive theories in their scientific writings. Predictive theories are used to foretell the future holding some factors constant. Predictive theories will thus be based on assumptions which help them in their application. These theories help scientist to pre-empt what may happen in the future when the circumstances explained there in occur. The formation of predictive theories is done after several tests are carried out on a specific field of study. These tests are used by the scientists to draw generalizations after considering the hypotheses and any assumptions that are needed in the application of their theories (Johnson, 2008). Predictive theories will provide answers to questions like where, how, what if, and why on both present and future happenings. Theory Development Most scientists usually start with a thought or a system of ideas in developing a scientific theory. The ideas usually start as guesses, develop to speculations and after several thoughts and tests develop into hypotheses. The formation of these hypotheses stands out as the origin of a theory. The hypotheses are put into consistent tests and experimentations in determining their reliability. Once these hypotheses are found to be consistent and not contradicting other theories, they develop into acceptable theories. The theories continue to develop with time experiencing adjustments as new facts and opinions are established. They grow stronger and more reliable as their ability to solve more problems is evidenced. The purpose of theory formation is to establish a set of scientifically stated facts, from which specific research questions and hypotheses can be formed and examined. Whether an inductive or deductive method is used, the aim is to come up with distinct expressions that explain the environmental patterns of nature. Though a theory could be acceptable, it continues to face criticism in considering its applicability to certain circumstances and, limitations in its scope. The phrase ‘theoretical’ is sometimes casually used instead of the term ‘hypothetical’ to illustrate an outcome that is predetermined by theory but has not yet been sufficiently tried through experimentation and observation. It is common for a theory to generate forecasts that are later verified or confirmed incorrect by experiment. By implication, a forecast proved wrong by experiment shows that the hypothesis is void. This either signifies that the theory is incorrect, or the investigational supposition was incorrect and, the theory did not envisage the hypothesis. A hypothesis can be defined as an educated guess or a prediction that explains the relationship between two or more variables. A hypothesis is a prediction as to what scientists and researchers expect to happen after they have carried out experiments on any subject. The difference between a theory and a hypothesis is that a hypothesis is a subset of a theory. A theory could be made from the trial of several hypotheses but in practice, hypotheses are usually more specific than theories. Results of tests of a single hypothesis may not approve or disapprove an existing theory. Several of such tests need to be applied on a number of hypotheses explaining a certain theory for a scientist to approve or disapprove the theory under consideration. When the hypotheses presented by a theory are found true after several examinations, such a theory is supported, whereas if the hypotheses are found to be false, the theory is reevaluated. The existence or the formation of a new scientific theory which is superior at explaining and forecasting phenomena than an older theory will make scientists believe that the later theory expresses reality more accurately. The statements of the older scientific theory will be reduced to the provisions of the new one. If an old scientific theory and a new one are parallel in principle when describing the same phenomena, the reality is assumed to have been explained more completely. Where a new science uses new terms which do not contradict the terms of an older one, but fairly substitute them exclusively, the older science is theoretically eliminated. Any science is considered inconclusive if, considering the available evidence mentioned in its theory, there is an opposing scientific theory whose evidence is more consistent and, acceptable. The collection, interpretation and statistical analysis of data on any issue under consideration are directed by certain theory or theories in existence. Any scientist will face an attraction to a certain field of study and will carry out a research in an attempt to confirm, make improvements on, or refute any existing scientific theory. Research methodologies employed will also be chosen based on their reliability which is explained by theories that establish them. The drive to research is also sometimes motivated by the urge to either support or deny claims in an attempt to establish some truth. In explaining the reality established in these inquiries theories are important in demonstrating the underlying facts (Szostak, 2004). Although theory is the backbone of all sciences, many researchers, innovators and engineers are often doubtful of the role of theory in their innovative work. Norman (1988) argues that in the classical approach, the development of science follows a sequence where people observe some regularity on certain issues within their environment. People then question and look for the presence of causal relationships if any about the phenomena under consideration. Assumptions are then deduced and then subjected to tests through falsification of theories in an attempt to develop new and more convincing theories. The continued subjection of these assumptions into more tests, the modification and revision of these theories helps to strengthen the accuracy and, the general acceptance of the scientific theories invented (Norman 1988). A theory is considered strong and reliable in the development of scientific enterprise if it can sufficiently make precise predictions which can be construed to be evidence. The theory should have the fewest assumptions and be as simple as possible. If any two or more theories explaining the same subject are competing, preference would be given to the simplest of them. However, the more simple a theory is may not necessarily indicate that such a theory is right or reliable. It should stand out as a tool that can interconnect ideas and abstractions and transform them into a reliable knowledge about nature. A good theory should also be able to generate predictions that are testable as well as explaining its findings. These predictions should be precise, consistent and based on facts and, free of any ambiguities. In the context of scientific enterprise, theory links up the abstract models, structures, skill presentations, images and correlations that direct the investigative efforts of researchers seeking to advance their knowledge in and across disciplinary borders. These researchers include mathematical scientists, medical researchers, biologists, chemists and philosophers who rely on their individual experiences in their respective disciplines to produce multidisciplinary collection of viewpoints. These angles are joined together by theories cutting across different subjects to develop science. Interestingly researchers have confirmed that all knowledge is theory-founded and that scientific practices are directed by theories. These affirmations have brought up queries on the role of theory in the development of both qualitative and quantitative science. Some researchers have the opinion that quantitative research relies less on theory but on statistical computations. However, majority of authors believe that both theory and statistical computations are equally important in the advancement of scientific enterprise. In Europe, scientific enterprise has preferred theories in which cause and effect is the overriding explanatory tool. Many scholars hold the opinion that events or actions do not just happen on their own, but because something or by extension someone causes them occur. The causal relationship of events is further explained by the fact that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. In this reasoning, living things especially animals have developed defense mechanisms so as to be able to defend themselves against enemy animals and have ability of sourcing for food. However, causality characteristic in theories has been found to be inadequate in giving accounts of most organisms because many interacting forces from the surrounding environment influence the behavior of the organism as a whole. The action of an organism may thus not be resulting from a single force or influence from the environment. Scientifically nature is seen to be self-balancing in that all ecosystems and living organisms are usually located at areas where they best fit. Their systems are seen to be controlled by an invisible hand and organizing out on their own. Science is in essence the amalgamation of sound logical thinking by way of realistic knowledge of the basic natural observable fact. All people do rationally reason and have some common knowledge about the natural environment where they live, but only few devote their time in reasoning and carrying out experiments to gain a better understanding of their phenomena. This small proportion is made up of researchers who have made contributions in the development of scientific enterprise through their publications. The researchers invest their time and physical resources in obtaining better knowledge about nature. To some their love for nature has been the reason behind their continued investigations through which theory has been highly used to explain their scientific findings. In scientific enterprise, theory is used in research so as to give science an explanation and, predictive insinuation. The role of theory in the philosophy of science has been to distinguish quality scientific theories from poor unscientific ones. In the earlier days, people used ideas and myths which were based either on outlined religious alliances or some common magical beliefs to explain the natural phenomena. For instance, Aristotle’s theoretical explanation of gravity which states that all objects have a natural tendency to move to their natural locations was generally accepted despite the fact that it was unequivocally unconfirmed. This unverified opinion has highly been challenged by modern scientists who have thoroughly carried out tests in trying to describe the natural world and developing theories to elucidate it. In the ancient times, theories were used to explain what happens in the natural universe but could not explain why or how these happenings like gravity occurred. However, modern scientists have continually used theories to not only explain the behaviors of nature but also why and how they result. Realistic scientific theories with both good and rational thinking as well as practical expertise of the natural universe emerged in Europe in the 1500s. The emergence was motivated by Europe’s desire to discover and exploit the entire universe and the revolution of the industrial development. The desire to discover and explore the universe necessitated the use of heavenly stars and magnetic compasses resulting to the development of astronomy as a science. Scientist had to use theories in explaining how the compass and heavenly stars could be used for navigation purposes. For instance, a theoretical publication by Nicolaus Copernicus was made by him to explain heavenly bodies where the earth correctly orbited the sun. Scientific systems require ideas and concepts to be made with convincing clarity and precision for them to be able to guide research and be able to evaluate findings in the light of the subject under study and everyday life experiences. In the development of scientific enterprise, theorists make references to ideas that are explained by other scientific theorists. The intention of researchers when carrying out scientific research is usually to add to the cumulative growth of scientific knowledge. The research projects are usually based in an appropriate scientific framework but their results are normally not generally related to the kinds of specific phenomena that which could be the concern of the researcher who concentrate in the development of scientific theory. Theory and Research In some fields of study, there is some close relationship between empirical research and general theory where both contribute in knowledge development. In common practice, research undertakings move along distinct disciplines which are fairy unrelated to the entire development of a certain field in totality. General scientific theory seems to be founded on specialized processes, where theorists basically try to explain the fundamental nature of the universe and how people can understand and, explain its essential characteristics with a consideration to the noticeable trends which guide science. For theory to direct and stimulate research it is important for it to formulate key theoretical ideas on which research questions and hypothesis can be generated. The supposition that cause and effect relations affect human behavior as they affect natural sciences contradicts the perception that human beings are free in choice making. A challenge is evident in the development of scientific theories in that mental processes that cause individuals’ choices cannot be objectively determined or observed. The development of sociology like any other scientific discipline is not objective because it is based on immeasurable parameters. Social theories differ from theories explaining the physical nature in that they are socially construed and not based on cause-effect relationships. However, theories on sociology cannot be said to be unscientific because of this characteristic only. A general behavior of human beings can be explained to a great extent, if not wholly. Theories help in explaining the past and any historical happenings that are known to people. Through theory, history is passed from generation to generation in explaining what is already known. They play a role in making predictions about the future. The future of unknown situations can be determined by relating the available known parameters to any viable and applicable theory. Theory will thus help in predetermining the future and making some provisions about the future outcomes in cases where any of the variables or parameters under consideration changes (Szostak, 2004). Through predictions, theory will further spawn the unearthing of narrative happenings. Theories are very important in the study of nature in that they help to inform scientists and other researchers in various disciplines about the existence of any problems and how they may be affecting humankind. Through theory, scientists establish viable solutions to these problems by creating change which is determined by the surrounding phenomena. Researchers justify their findings and actions through the use of scientifically proven theories. Through theories, scientists are able to accumulate knowledge and improve their experiences in certain fields of scientific research and provide several solutions to the problems that people could be encountering. For instance, the emergence of diseases which affect humans will usually force scientists to carry more research in trying to come up with a cure or a vaccine to such a disease. If the medications which doctors could be using to treat these diseases are found to be resistant, new medications which are scientifically proven to be more reliable and, having a strong theory backing them can be introduced to curb the disease. Therefore, theory is very important because it helps to direct scientists actions in trying to eliminate any current problems. Theory directs the actions of scientists by defining well the problems at hand and scientifically coming up with solutions to solve them. Through directing, theory helps in determining the process of scientific research. In this sense, scientific theories will be either qualitative or quantitative in their approach. In the quantitative methodology, scientists begin with a general declaration suggesting the existence of a universal correlation between two or more variables. Scientists then take an informed position considering the available facts as determined through data collection. In this approach, scientists take phenomena as natural and real. Based on the data collected, the variables are assigned parameters which explain correlations between them. In stage by stage development of the scientific theory, mathematical models and equations are formulated which can be used for future predictions. Quantitative approach in theory development involves tests and surveys on hypotheses set at the early stages of the research in an attempt to establish generalizations on the phenomena under study. The quantitative approach gives much attention to data collection, measurements, tallying and statistical analysis in developing viable quantitative theories (Tashakkori and Teddlie, 1998). In qualitative approach theorists in their development of scientific theories, use descriptive words and try to avoid numerals in their models as possible. The scientists employ statistical methods such as observation, interviews and questionnaires in gathering evidence for use in theory construction. Qualitative theories try to describe the phenomena as it is rather than carrying out tests to determine how the events happen. The aim of this method is to come up with specific hypotheses from the data gathered and not to examine them. Never the less, most theories cannot be classified as either qualitative or, quantitative. Scientific theories may be constructed based on both approaches (Tashakkori and Teddlie, 1998). The distinction in the two approaches is in the entire structure and the objectives set for each scientific research. The advancement and change in technologies, trade and peoples’ lives have influenced greatly the role of theory in scientific enterprise. The spontaneous changes in these disciplines have greatly changed the scope of phenomena resulting to some theories being rendered irrelevant and outdated. The development of computer technology and the advancement in electrical engineering has challenged the viability of some theories in the advancement of science. Theories that support scientific manual processes have recently been disregarded whereas researchers prefer computerized technologies. For this reason some theories have faced hardships even in their basic roles of explaining and predicting the future. Therefore, it is necessary for any existing theory to continually get revised as changes in the phenomena in which it is founded vary. This makes theories to even play the major role of defining and explaining the changes in science, why such changes are happening and, making any predictions on the variables that direct the scientific development. In practice, the more theory a science has, the greater the ability to turn data into evidence. In the early stages of theory development, the science explained by a theory will have limited ability to transform the available data into evidence (Norman 1988). Therefore, there is need for consideration of the assumptions and hypotheses put in place in the early stages of theory development even though the claim that they are true is weak or, questionable. This is important in science enterprise in that new innovations that have potential for development are not written off on the basis of their initial weak hypotheses. The basis of many sciences still remains arbitrary and consequently many of the scientific principles have a fragile evidence base. Even though, the importance of theory in the development of scientific enterprise is immeasurable, every theory has been found to have some limitations. Most theory are founded on various assumptions and can only be found true only when the prevailing circumstances can accept these assumptions. Therefore, scientists are required to be very careful in their theory developments especially when making conclusions and drawing generalizations on any subject about nature. Different theories explaining a similar field of study or describing the same phenomena could possess different limitations. For instance, if these theories are parallel, this aspect will stand out as a limitation and may challenge the applicability of these theories in problem solving or, in the explanation of any field of science. However, scientists should not be discouraged by the existence of shortcomings in their theories. This is because human beings are also limited in their understanding of nature and the entire universe. No one has attained monopoly in knowledge and limitations or mistakes of one scientist in his theory can always be corrected by his followers who modify the theory as need be and contribute to the further development of scientific enterprise. Conclusion The competence of scientific application and advancement can be enhanced through the reformation of scientific enterprise. Scientists need to carry out their researches carefully, competently and, with due diligence, making their theories based on tangible evidence. There is need for consideration of Professional ethics in the use of theory, for any scientist to make an impact in scientific development. Researchers need to recognize and accept the notion that science can be imperfect as well as the theory that explains it. To build faith on users of a particular theory, the researcher should spell out the advantages as well as the limitations in applicability as per the evidence gathered during the development of the theory. Therefore, theory has a very primary relationship with data and this is more evident in science development. In particular, what scientists observe in data analysis is determined by their actions and preconceived theories. Data collected during scientific researches has demonstrated that theory and science develop more together as partners but science’s foundation is from a theory. This demonstrates that not only is theory important in scientific enterprise but also part of human life. All items living or non-living in the universe, which are known to man, have a theory that explains their source or, how they came to be in existence. According to Bernard and Ritti (1990) theory is a set of knowledge bound together by explicit relationships and causal priorities. Theory has an explanatory tool that demonstrates how cause and effect are related, and why that relationship exists. It thus stands out as the distinguishing feature in scientific enterprise. Bibliography: Bernard, T. and Ritti, R. (1990). ‘The role of theory in scientific research’ In Measurement Issues in Criminology. New York: Springer-Verlag. Johnson, D. (2008). Contemporary Sociological Theory: An Integrated Multi-level Approach. Netherlands: Springer Norman, D. (1988). The Design of Everyday Things. Boston: MIT Press. Szostak, R. (2004). Classifying Science: Phenomena, Data, Theory, Method, Practice. Netherlands: Springer Tashakkori, A. and Teddlie, C. (1998). Mixed Methodology: Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. New York: Sage. Read More