Advanced Material Process - Term Paper Example

Advanced Material Process Name Affiliation LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1……………………………………………………………………………………..9 Figure 2……………………………………………………………………………………..12 Figure 3……………………………………………………………………………………..13 Figure 4…………………………………………………………………………………….13 Figure 5……………………………………………………………………………………..14 Advanced Material Process 1 Name 1 Affiliation 1 LIST OF FIGURES 2 Figure 1……………………………………………………………………………………..9 2 ABSTRACT 6 INTRODUCTION (QUESTION ONE) 7 1.1 General background 7 1.2 Components of the Battery 8 1.2.1 The Cathode Material 8 1.2.2 Anode Material 9 1.3.3 Plastic Casing 9 1.3 Materials Required 9 1.4 Sources of Materials 10 Structural Element Mass Production of Lithium 10 1.4.1 Extraction of Lithium 10 i.The concentration of brine water through the process of evaporation 10 ii.Removal of magnesium by addition of CaCo2. This leads to a solid phase conversion of reaction that converts Ca(OH)2 to Mg(OH)2. Magnesium hydroxide is from brine by filtration method. Ca2+ from the solid phase are retain in the brine solution to reduce waste. 10 iii.Removal of calcium. The addition of lithium carbonate produces conversation reaction that converts lithium carbonate to calcium carbonate. Calcium carbonate is removed by filtration process. 10 iv.The production of lithium carbonate production through precipitation. 10 The diagram shows the extraction process: 10 11 Figure 1 11 1.4.2 Manufacture of the Plastic Casing 11 1.5 Research and Development of New Materials 12 The improvement of the materials used in the manufacturing process is essential to improve the output as well as to compete effectively to other batteries below is some of the methods which the materials can be advanced: 12 1.5.1 Electrode Coating Process 12 The first stage in the electrode coating process is mixing the electrode materials with a conductive binder. Slurry is formed and spread on the surface. The knife edge is placed above the foil. The thickness of the electrode is determined by adjusting the foil and the knife edge gap. 13 1.5.2 Nanostructured Electrodes 13 1.5.3 Multiphase Composites 13 1.5.4 Carbon Based Composites 14 1.5.5 Methods 14 Hydrothermal method 14 Modified Solid Sate Reaction 15 Characterization of the Composite Materials 15 1.6 Structure and Construction of the Battery 15 1.6.1 Assembling of the Battery 16 The assembling is done in the factory is done using automated equipment but there are still other small scale manufacturers who use the manual assembly methods. The first step is to construct the electrode assembly whereby the separator is sandwiched between the electrodes (anode and cathode). With respect to the type of casing used there are two electrode structures can be used. A spiral wound structure is mostly good for cylindrical cells and prismatic cell prefer stacked structure. Below is the assembly process for a prismatic and cylindrical cell. 16 1.6.2 Quality Control and Testing 16 1.7 Manufacturing process for Lithium Battery the Joining Process 17 The above chart shows the joining process of lithium battery. The figure below shows the diagrams of a complete manufactured lithium battery: 18 Figure 3 Figure 4 18 1.8 Transportation of Lithium and Selling of Batteries 18 1.9 Recycling of the Lithium Battery and Land fill 18 1.9.1 Cell Disruption 19 1.9.2 Physical separation 19 After the mechanical treatment, the cells and plastics are broken apart, there is also separation by physical means using magnetism or gravity. The plastic from the casings are separated by floatation. For larger batteries manual dismantling is important. 19 2.0 ANALYSIS 19 3.0 DISCUSSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 20 QUESTION TWO 21 4.0 FRP COMPOSITES TECHNOLOGY 21 4.1 Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites Challenge 21 4.2 New Bridge Construction with FRP Deck Systems 22 4.3 New Bridge Construction with FRP Hybrid Systems 22 4.4 Bridge Strengthening and Repairs 23 4.5 Conclusion 23 5.0 TEXTILE STRUCTURAL COMPOSITES 23 5.1Advantages of the textile composite material over the traditional material (my component is textile material) 25 5.1.1Industry 25 5.1.2Protection 26 5.1.3Medical and hygiene 26 ABSTRACT Lithium batteries are of high demand in applications that include: industrial, automotive category and portable encompassing. This type of battery should meet requirements like long life cycle, high rate capabilities, and large reverse capacity that contain advanced materials that provide solutions to these issues. In order to have an improved battery performance, there should be a development of various battery components having a benchmark of improving the materials used in fabrication of the anode and cathode. The use of advanced material (conductive composite and nanostructure materials) is to be designed to increase the electron transport, diffusion of liquid electrolyte, and ion transport. In this paper the advanced process used conductive composite materials and several nanostructured materials for application as electrode for lithium-ion batteries. INTRODUCTION (QUESTION ONE) 1.1 General background In the recent world, renewable and clean energy storage has become the most important thing to take note of in research development and power industry. Fossil fuel is the biggest source of energy. The current urbanization and human mobility has become a threat to this source of energy since it leads to over exploitation of the resources. Despite the existence of the fossil fuel batteries like lithium ion have been a major source of energy for electronic devices. However, Lithium batteries cannot satisfy the demand of the public, thus there is a need to improve it. This battery device is changing dramatically and becoming sophisticated and demanding giving it much room for future development apart from the automotive application (Hyer, 1997, 12). With the increase in demand and the electronic advances, Lithium batteries with high power density, better cyclic stability and high energy density are needed. An improved performance of the battery can only be achieved in the battery system by first developing the materials used to manufacture the electrode as the electrode materials hold the greatest role in energy storage and conversion since this is were electrochemical process takes place. In this paper the research has been focused on developing the electrodes using the advanced materials with long life cycles, large charge rates, and high discharge capacity. 1.2 Components of the Battery The lithium battery consists of three components: a cathode, the electrolyte, and the anode. The energy is produced by converting the chemical electrical energy through the Faradaic process that includes heterogeneous charge transfer(Perez, 2009, 65).Advances in the industry have been depending on the use of different electrolyte and electrode that have different electrochemical reactions. The electronic viscosity and conductivity of the material used to manufacture the electrodes are very low in the Lithium battery and hence necessary efforts to improve the effectiveness of the battery. Though it has a commercial success in the manufacture of cameras, cell phones, and laptops lithium batteries are not good enough in the production of power supplies for hybrid electrical vehicles (HEV), electric vehicle (EV) that needs high power density and energy. To meet this development and demands, the rechargeable lithium batteries have undergone advanced process in all aspects of Lithium batteries. The materials needed for the manufacture of lithium battery are: Carbon that is used for the anode, the cathode is made of lithium oxide, aluminum foil, and the plastic outside casing. 1.2.1 The Cathode Material This component is indispensable parts of Lithium batteries hence research efforts are being put in place to improve cathode materials in order to reduce costs and to improve the safety issues. Li2O is used as cathode material in most commercial lithium batteries though the raw materials used for its manufacture are not easily available, more costly, and toxic thus a need to upgrade the system using advanced materials (Masters, 2006, 21). 1.2.2 Anode Material Graphite and coke have been the obvious compounds used in manufacture of lithium batteries. The main reason for the use of these materials is the low operational voltage and the low production cost. For these materials to produce high voltages, it’s coupled with LiCoO2. However these materials have several cons like, poor safety issues related to lithium deposits, low energy density, and capacity loss. New advanced materials like Si and Sn of low cost, long life cycle, and enhanced safety are used to boost these anodes are considered alternative anode materials. However there exists a challenge of implementing the large volume they uptake during lithium extraction and insertion (Whitney, 2008, 98). 1.3.3 Plastic Casing The plastic casing of the lithium battery is made from and advance process. Carbon fibre composite is used as the best alternative for the manufacture of the casing. This carbon Fibre has to undergo a manufacturing process below: 1.3 Materials Required Table Showing the Materials used in Manufacture of Lithium Battery Material Function Lithium Cathode Carbon Anode Carbon fibre Plastic casing Electrolyte Conduction of current 1.4 Sources of Materials Structural Element Mass Production of Lithium Since lithium is the widely used element in the production of the Lithium battery this report is going to discuss it production process from the extraction to the manufacture of the battery and also to the transportation process. 1.4.1 Extraction of Lithium Lithium can be extracted from minerals or brine later processed to get lithium carbonate that is used to produce several lithium compounds. The most abundant source of lithium is brine; this makes brine to be an important source of lithium to meet to its global demands. This report will touch on the extraction of lithium from brine. The process includes the following steps: i. The concentration of brine water through the process of evaporation ii. Removal of magnesium by addition of CaCo2. This leads to a solid phase conversion of reaction that converts Ca(OH)2 to Mg(OH)2. Magnesium hydroxide is from brine by filtration method. Ca2+ from the solid phase are retain in the brine solution to reduce waste. iii. Removal of calcium. The addition of lithium carbonate produces conversation reaction that converts lithium carbonate to calcium carbonate. Calcium carbonate is removed by filtration process. iv. The production of lithium carbonate production through precipitation. The diagram shows the extraction process: Figure 1 1.4.2 Manufacture of the Plastic Casing Pitch preparation during this process the first step is the elimination of the impurities like gel materials and solid particles. Such impurities could lead to decrease in the tensile strength. The second step is spinning process. The viscosity of the carbon fibre polymer is very sensitive for temperature therefore there should be a temperature control at the spinneret. The third process is the thermosetting; this process uses oxidation reaction for removing heat from the pitch fibre thus slow thermosetting reaction is used. The fourth step in the process is carbonation; carbonation process is very easy and fast to a fibre that has no defects. This process can only take 10 seconds or less. The last step in the production process is graphitization process; the consumption of the electrode is increased in this process. The end result here is the plastic casing that is transported for assembly of the battery. 1.5 Research and Development of New Materials The improvement of the materials used in the manufacturing process is essential to improve the output as well as to compete effectively to other batteries below is some of the methods which the materials can be advanced: 1.5.1 Electrode Coating Process The cathode and anode of the lithium battery are made using the same process and using the same equipment. The electrode materials are always coated on both sides to improve the material. The coating is done using a metallic foil that acts current collector that conducts the electric current in and out of the battery. These materials are delivered to the factory in form of a black powder and to the naked eye they are impossible to tell apart thus a lot of care is needed to prevent the materials from coming into contact with each other that’s why these materials are processed in different rooms. The coating process is shown in the diagram below: Figure 5 The first stage in the electrode coating process is mixing the electrode materials with a conductive binder. Slurry is formed and spread on the surface. The knife edge is placed above the foil. The thickness of the electrode is determined by adjusting the foil and the knife edge gap. 1.5.2 Nanostructured Electrodes Lithium battery is one of the systems that has benefited from the introduction of nanostructures. The use of nanostructured electrodes has greatly improved lithium ion intercalation capacity (cyclic stability, storage capacity, and intercalation rate. If we consider the interface reactions of lithium ion nanostructured electrode are favorable since they meet all the needed requirements. 1.5.3 Multiphase Composites With reference to multiphase composites properties of each phase affects the performance of the material. When using this advanced process the primary goal is to dispense active particles in a composite matrix by using the host matrix to boost the changes in volume of the active particles so as the electronic contact and the electrode integrity between the conducive phase and the active particles can be maintained. The result is that the host matrix will allow transport of Li ions and electrons maintaining the micro structural stability. The matrix acts as a spacer for the reduction of active particle aggression during cycling. It is reported that large amounts of hosts increases the cycling stability and eventually reduces the specific capacity. In order to avoid this problem, the host matrix in the advanced material should have required mechanical strength; good ionic and electronic conductivity. It has been proposed that a high yield, low ductility, low elasticity volumes and strength matrix will provide good volumes during cycling. In this view this advance process is important in upgrading the lithium battery to meet its demand. 1.5.4 Carbon Based Composites Carbon based materials are the most important components of the electrode since it has high electronic robustness and conductivity. Researchers have dedicated their interest in the development of electrodes using advanced architecture using nanostructured carbon materials (carbon nanotubes or nanofibers both of advanced materials. The beneficial effects of carbon coating have been studied in many cases. The improved performance due to carbon- based composite; cycling performance has a hand in improved buffering effect and conductivity of electrode. Carbon additive have an advantage in low volume expansion, tolerance to mechanical stress, energy storage, and ionic conductivity. It has been noted that carbon coating exerts stress on particles hence acts as opposing force against particle volume. In addition to carbon coating metal coating such as that of silver uses this principle hence used to increase the conductivity as well in the Lithium battery. 1.5.5 Methods The following methods were used in the system upgrade using the advanced materials: Hydrothermal method This type of synthesis includes use of various types of techniques form high temperature solutions at higher temperature. This method can also be termed as the synthesis of minerals in hot water but under high pressure. This method is used in coating of the electrodes with stainless steel containing polytetrafluoroethylene (PTEE).To achieve desired materials with proper crystal structure and morphology all the requirements has to be met including the concentration of the processor, the pressure and the volume of the solvent used in the advance process. Modified Solid Sate Reaction This method is also called a solvent reaction or a dry media reaction. When considering a normal reaction with the reactants are placed in the solvent before the reaction there which they react to form a new substance-the new material. Characterization of the Composite Materials Structural and physical investigations of the materials were investigated using several techniques. The equipment used was both obtained from Intelligent Polymer Research Institute which is under the Australian institute of Innovation Material. The following were the techniques used: 1.6 Structure and Construction of the Battery 1.6.1 Assembling of the Battery The assembling is done in the factory is done using automated equipment but there are still other small scale manufacturers who use the manual assembly methods. The first step is to construct the electrode assembly whereby the separator is sandwiched between the electrodes (anode and cathode). With respect to the type of casing used there are two electrode structures can be used. A spiral wound structure is mostly good for cylindrical cells and prismatic cell prefer stacked structure. Below is the assembly process for a prismatic and cylindrical cell. 1.6.2 Quality Control and Testing In order to provide the best battery products, certification of the well known companies and those that have the ability to produce the best results are noted. During the certification process, testing, process control and assessment is done. Testing constitutes of safety: - confirm that the battery is with the IEC/CTIA standards that include battery construction analysis, cycle life testing, cell capacity and battery testing, temperature cycling puncture, cell crush, and flame testing. The work of the quality control department is to check the authenticity of all the above requirements. 1.7 Manufacturing process for Lithium Battery the Joining Process The manufacturing process of Lithium battery is a very sensitive process, whereby the materials used must be protected from moisture. For this to be possible dew point instrument is used to test for the moisture content. The process wants dry air management in order to defects on the product quality and chemical reactions most of this process are being done in dry rooms where the optimum conditions can be obtained (-50 to -40 0c). Sampling tests like the Vaisala are designed to give the user easy manufacture of the battery. The testing cells use thread connections to accept wide variety of fittings. For the battery to be upgraded it undergoes the electrode coating process. The above chart shows the joining process of lithium battery. The figure below shows the diagrams of a complete manufactured lithium battery: Figure 3 Figure 4 1.8 Transportation of Lithium and Selling of Batteries A number of bodies in the world control the transportation of Li batteries. These regulations differ from country to country according to maritime organization and to global aviation. Trying to run the regulation about the transportation is becoming more confusing. There are two referenced regulations governing these rules and regulations, United States Department of Transportation (USDoT) regulations and the International Air Transport Association (IATA). After this process the lithium battery is ready for sell. The sale is available in different a pack that is affordable for consumers. The consumption of the battery is domestic (touches, watches, laptops etc.) while the other is industrial (used in vehicles) 1.9 Recycling of the Lithium Battery and Land fill The reason for recycling process is to reduce cost and to provide care to the environment. One of the ways to recycling the waste material from lithium battery is the reuse and the other is using them in other different applications. The essence of recycling and disposing needs to break the chemical bonds encompassing the battery and also to separate the elements to an ideal material that is also acceptable to the environment. The dug up pits generated from the excavated lithium ore is filled with treated waste and other forms of waste to prevent environmental hazards from occurring. This is to minimize waste, produce useable products, and reform the risky substances. The Metal recovery is one of the most important things in the recycling of battery. There is several treatment methods used to change the waste to new products like: 1.9.1 Cell Disruption This includes the shredding, shearing, crushing and other manipulation by destruction into small pieces. This method is used as the first operational industrial waste treatment. In the battery recycling the opening of the cells mechanically is important unless the cells are smelted. 1.9.2 Physical separation After the mechanical treatment, the cells and plastics are broken apart, there is also separation by physical means using magnetism or gravity. The plastic from the casings are separated by floatation. For larger batteries manual dismantling is important. 2.0 ANALYSIS The general importance of using theses advanced materials are as follows: The nanostructured material doesn’t only provide innovative reaction mechanism but also improves the electrochemical the lithium ion battery, these materials also provide a larger contact of the electrode that is important in high performance since the diffusion of Li ion and the electron transport can be dependent on the length of the transport and the accessible sites on the material surface. The transfer of electrons can also be done by these advanced materials. According to the experiment performed it was noted that electrodes with small size were not beneficial for production of high-rate charge due to the long path length of lithium battery transport and the low contact area of the electrolyte and the electrode. On addition, these composite materials can deliver good cycling stability. The fading away of these batteries is due to large volume contraction and expansion of Li insertion. The advanced materials are able to absorb the large volumes of contraction and expansion thereby preserving the integrity of the electrode materials. The composite materials are important for electrolyte diffusion to provide large transport channels for Li ions thus increasing the stability of the electrode. The overall goal in upgrading the lithium ion batteries from the synthesis of the advanced materials is to improve the electrochemical capacity of the battery to perform well as compared to its competitors in the business environment. 3.0 DISCUSSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The aim of this report was to broaden our understanding on the use of advanced materials to boost the normal materials, report on the change in the performance of this advanced materials with respect to the energy storage, synthesis, and the application of the electrode due to its new changes. The application of the advanced lithium ion batteries are also discussed in order to make a comparison in the performance of the batteries. The synthesized composite materials show a lot of advantages as electrode materials to the lithium ion batteries. The nanostructured electrode introduces advanced reaction mechanisms and also improves electrochemical properties like storage and electrolyte accessibility. Though the advance process has done a lot in the improvement of the Li-ion batteries a lot of future research is needed to increase the cells energy storage capacity. All aspects discussed in this report can be further researched since every new finding has opened the doors for other related scientific questions. Here are some of the recommendations that are very essential in the improvement to the advance materials in order to manufacture good batteries. The advanced materials such as LiCoO2 and LiMnPO4 should be used instead of the amorphous carbon so as to improve the high rate capability and the cycling stability. The effects provided by the binder on the performance of the Li-ion batteries need further investigation (Ishikawa, 2002, 12). QUESTION TWO 4.0 FRP COMPOSITES TECHNOLOGY In the last few years in the implementation of the construction of bridges in the United States the Innovative Bridge Research team have used Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) composites technology for structural applications in bridges before the use of this new advanced material projects have scattered throughout the United States affected by different service and environmental conditions. 4.1 Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites Challenge Composite technology has shown great success for applications of bridges.Companies have been developing research in FRP materials in the last 25 years. Advancing the FRP technology is a dream to innovative application and structural design. This composite material can meet the traits of the composite system and element in order to meet the desired goals. Some of the characteristic of this composite material are they are highly corrosive and posses fatigue resistance making them outstanding in structural engineering. 4.2 New Bridge Construction with FRP Deck Systems FRP composite can be used to fill the bridge to extend the life span of existing structures. The new systems used by IBRC Program, some of the projects employ FRP bridge systems desk which usually come in other forms and shapes. Examples of these deck systems are products from glass fibers and polyester. Although the composite materials are of great tensile strength, the designs are stiff. The other feature of the FRP system is ability to be installed and deployed at the job site. In case of reducing congestion at the workplace and improvement safety, FRP bridges that are very important. The challenge in the use of FRP is the routine construction work zones; the designs need element analysis, when using light superstructures it can be unstable mostly for long life structures. With reference to the new innovation the composite material will require testing and validation to be able to build up databases for the systems. Also, depending on the fabrication of the desk panel the quality and the consistency may vary. For field work then the construction and other connection details will be tested, developed and improved since a well installed overlay bond can improve the service life of the desk panel and traffic traction (Scida, 1999, 61). 4.3 New Bridge Construction with FRP Hybrid Systems The FRP composite materials posses a higher first-cost, the hybrid FRP systems that combine the high compression strength of conventional materials has also been proven effective to all engineering works. This hybrid system is classified into two categories – structural systems and composites consisting of hybrid composites and conventional materials. The first group involves product-level definition and the second category involves a system-level. When one is designing a hybrid structures the most important strategy is how the tensile strength can be capitalized as we take advantage of the comprehension strength. 4.4 Bridge Strengthening and Repairs The other point to note is the use of the IBRC program in bonded concrete repair using FRP laminates and wet lay-up fabrics. The mounted composites have been used in Many repair application and concrete bridge strengthening since it’s cost effective and easy to install. 4.5 Conclusion This composite material is very important to engineering and construction firms that have a hand in building of structures. Though it produces good results there is more need of future research to make the material better for future use. 5.0 TEXTILE STRUCTURAL COMPOSITES This type of composite represents a group of advanced materials which that are improved using the textile reforms for load bearing or structural application. At present textile composite is one of the largely known composite materials. Textile composite is defined as the system of resin with textile yarn, fiber, and fabric. The composite may be either rigid or flexible. The flexible textile includes heavy duty conveyor belts and inflatable life rafts. The other examples of inflexible composite are the FRP system. These type of composite are being used in the aircraft, automotive and the also show a good alternative for wood and metal applications. The composite materials are mainly used for structural materials that are intended to resist heavy loads that take place in frameworks of bridges, vehicles and buildings. The largely used textile composite is the fiber reinforced plastics (FRP). There are many perform embedded in metal, resin and also on ceramic matrix. For the matrix system it provides rigidity that can hold the reinforcement materials in the best orientation and position (Foye, 2007, 67. Textile structural composites offer the best alternative structures for the commercial airplanes which offer competition to those manufactured from metallic airplanes. These types of composite materials are considered for many components to improve the performance of the structures and also to reduce cost. Due to the interest gained in the textile composites various models have been developed to predict the stiffness and the strengths. Thought these models are based on the simplifying assumptions they give very good approximation of the textile effectiveness. The mechanics of the composite can be best done using the hierarchical organization of the levels in the manufacturing process: FIBER> YARN> FABRIC> COMPOSITE The fibers choice depends on the initial steps in the fabrication of the textile structural composite. So as to resist loads the textile composites are supposed to be made from the high modulus fibers like, graphite, aramid, ceramic, glass or steel fibers. The second step is the grouping of the fibers to form a continuous strand. The filament is then impregnated with resin producing a yarn. The figure below shows examples of yarn structures. The third step is the manufacturing process of interlocking and bonding of the yarns to produce a sheet with a specific pattern (Cox, 1997, 67). The fabric type is categorized with the yarn orientation used and by the construction method used. The basic structures of the fabric structures are knits, nonwovens, woven and braids. The fourth step in the textile composite manufacturing process consists of assembling of the layers into a laminate manner. The textile is then molded to the final shape using a matrix like the RFI (resin film infusion matrix). Figure 2 5.1Advantages of the textile composite material over the traditional material (my component is textile material) 5.1.1Industry In the industry application, manufacturers use technical textiles materials of the composite nature as compared to the traditional ones (Chou, 2006, 45. For example, the conveyor belts used in the transport industry is made from the composite materials. Some of the industries using this type of convey belts are mining, chemical, automotive and cement. These driving belts are those made from polymers strengthen by supple textile composite. The traditional materials cannot meet this requirement because there are very flexible and can easily break. 5.1.2Protection With the effort from the textile protects people are away from the big number of potential attacks today. These composite materials are used to fight against hazards like, fire, cold, heat, perforation and projection of dangerous products such as metals in fusion as compared to the traditional ones which offered almost the same services but with a down trend 5.1.3Medical and hygiene The textile composite materials have been able to offer absorption capacity, blocking effect, and immobilization capacity they have been used in the composition of vascular, articular and ligamentary prostheses (Byun, 2000, 23) References Byun, J-H. 2000. “The analytical characterization of 2D braided textile composites”, Journal of Composites Science and Technology, Elsevier Science Ltd., 2000. Chou, T.W.2006. “Analysis and Modeling of Two-dimensional Fabric Composites”, Chapter 7 of Textile Structural Composites, Composite Material Series, Vol.3, by Chou T.W. and Ko, K., R. Byron Pipes Editor,. 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Naik, R.A.2001, “Analysis of Woven and Braided Fabric Reinforced Composites,” NASA Contractor Report CR-194930. Naik, N.K. Woven Fabric Composites, Technomic publication, 1994. Perez, J.G.2009 “Energy Absorption and Progressive Failure Response of Composite Fuselage and Frames”, Master of Science Thesis in Aerospace Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia. Poe, C.C., and Harris, C.E., “Mechanics of Textile Composites Conference”, NASA Conference Publication 3311, Part 1&2, October 1995. Rosen, B.W., Chatterjee, S.N. and Kibler, J.J.: “An Analysis Model for Spatially Oriented Fiber Composites”, Composite Materials: Testing and Design (Fourth Conference), ASTM STP 617, American Society for Testing and Materials, 2007, pp.243-254. Scida D. 1999, “A Micromechanics Modelfor 3D Elasticity and Failure of Woven-fibre Composite Materials”, Composites Scienceand Technology. Scardino, F.1989, “An Introduction to Textile Structures and their Behavior”, Textile Structural Composites, Composite Material Series, Vol. 3, Elsevier, New York, , pp. 1-26. Source: http://www.netcomposites.com. Site accessed on February 15, 2002. Published courtesy of David Cripps, SP Systems. Tsai, S.W, Theory of composites design, Think Composite, section 4.2, 1992. Whitney, J. M. 2008. Micromechanical materials modeling, Volume 2,Technomic publication. Read More