A Second Look At The History Of Christianity - Annotated Bibliography Example

? A SECOND LOOK AT THE HISTORY OF CHRISTIANITY Working Bibliography by INDIANA WESLEYAN April 12, Working Bibliography The primary focus of this paper is to take a second look at the origins of Christianity specifically in the teachings of Jesus Christ and study this in the light of the historical flaws in the life of the church. What was the original message of Jesus Christ and did he really plan to build a big institutionalized church named after him? Did Jesus Christ really want to have more than 41,000 feuding denominations all claiming to be Christian churches and almost all claiming to be the only way towards salvation? Is Jesus Christ now smiling at how the Catholic Church, the Mainline Protestant Churches, the New Religious Movements, the Pentecostals, the Evangelicals, the Fundamentalists, the liberation theologians not to mention fanatical sects and cults are now behaving? What really happened to the history of the church and is there a possibility that all these churches be One? Jesus Christ Prays for Unity Although there are now different versions and translations of the Bible, it cannot be contested that Christ wants all to be one, just as he and the Father are one. In the Gospel of John chapter 17:21, Jesus prays, “that they may all be one. As you, Father, are in me and I am in you, may they also be in us, so that the world may believe that you have sent me" (International Council of Religious Education, 1977). The fact remains that christian churches are divided. This is not to mention the 30 years war betweeen the Protestants and the Catholics, the Wars during the Reformation, and the countless martyrdoms on every side all in the name of Christianity. The fact remains is that these shisms are not simple differences as they have already led to bloodshed and religious discrimination and even major wars. Simply look at the illustration below (The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life, December 19, 2011): The Protestants, claiming that they have found the original message of Christ, were not exempted from division. See the figure below (Protestant Branches, 1997). To date there are about 41,000 registered Christian sects and denominations all claiming to be unique, different, and having the right path to salvation (The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life, December 19, 2011). In fact most of these organizations would affirm the call for unity. There is also a recent encyclical by Pope John Paul II entitled Ut Unum Sint meaning, “That All may be One” calling for oneness and ecumenism. This encyclical recognizes that Christian prejudices have become too heavy a burden and outlines the processes towards mutual respect and unity among the different Christian denominations. (Paul, 1995). Despite Jesus’ prayer for unity, Christian churches became divided. Here is a detailed study of the various divisions that occurred within the Christian churches. In a sense, it is going to be a second look at church history and in the end, this paper will ask the question if it is possible to overlook the differences for the sake of a higher principle which is the message of the Gospel and Christian unity. The Debate between Saint Peter and Saint Paul James Dunn gives an enlightening discussion on the early church specifically on the debate of Saint Peter and Saint Paul. Both of these saints believe that the second coming of Christ will come within their lifetimes but both advocated different pathways. In his book, Jews and Christians: The Parting of the Ways, Dunn relates how Saint Peter wishes the Gospel to be preached to the Jews first and how Saint Paul advocates the preaching of the Gospel to the gentiles. It must be noted however that Saint Peter was not exclusivist. He only wanted to preach to the Jews first as a matter of priority but he is open to convert other people besides Jews. Besides the issue of who to prioritize the preaching of the Gospel to, considering the imminence of Christ’s Second Coming, there are also major cultural differences among the two groups. Saint Paul, trained under the Greek Hellenistic tradition was not particularly inclined to the Jewish practices of circumcision and prohibitions on certain foods. Although the original preachers of Christianity came from the Jews ethnically, they slowly spread to other cultures. With the cultural exchanges also followed different interpretations of the Gospel. With Hellenistic philosophy subtly permeating the early Apostolic tradition which can be specifically seen in the Letters of Saint Paul, the Greek concept of Body-Soul, Heaven-Earth, Life here- and Life after invaded the originally integrated interpretation of the Jews. For the Jewish Christians, there is no division between heaven and earth. For them, heaven should be on earth, with peace and happiness for all people in flesh and blood. They believe that these would all happen in their lifetime when Christ comes again in all his glory in the Second Coming. However as they waited and waited to no avail, the Paulinian interpretation slowly became dominant as it was able to justify their waiting with a heaven out there in the world of the spirit. Thus for many Christians today, only the Paulinian interpretation seem to exist, where heaven can only be attained after death and in spirit. Only during the end of time and during Christ Second Coming where the resurrection of the dead will happen and heaven shall be experienced on earth in body and spirit (Dunn, 1999). What Accounts for the Rise of Christianity? It is important also to understand why Christianity has been successful during its early stages before the divisions started to happen. By learning the positive lessons Christian experiences of history, we will be able to be in a position to apply them now. In Rodney Stark’s book entitled The Rise of Christianity, he discusses various factors that could account for the success of Christianity. The most important factors discussed by Stark are the following: 1. Despite persecutions and perhaps because of the persecutions and the corresponding attitudes of Christians towards death, Christianity has shown the world an example of a faith that could conquer the ageless question of death. In the Roman world built on violence of conquest and gladiator fights, blood and death have become common themes with which they have made the people succumb in fear. The early Christians however found a way to conquer death through faith. During the persecutions of Christians, the crowd marveled at how Christians could face death with joy, equanimity, and courage. Some groups were reported to even sing songs of praises while they were being fed to the lions. 2. The Edict of Milan issued by Roman Emperor Constantine stopped the persecution of the Christians and gave Christianity a prestige in the world dominated by Rome. It was not only an edict of the religious toleration of Christians but gave the go signal for the Church to become a state religion. Although Constantine remained to be pagan until his death, the incipient influence of Christianity evolved into a powerful state religion that would find its peak in the Dark Ages long after the fall of Rome. 3. Even before the Edict of Milan, Christianity has already started to expand amidst the persecutions. This is because they have rapidly expanded among the slaves in the outskirts of Rome. The lowliest of people during the Roman times were slaves. Slaves have no rights. They can be sold in the market and can be put to death anytime without any repercussions from the law. These are the people who are open to the message of the Gospel. For one thing, the Christians treat the slaves as human all equal in the eyes of God. Then the Christians give the slaves hope for a better life in Jesus Christ. 4. Stark asserts that Christianity was so appealing because it improved the lives of the believers in various ways. In Acts 2: 44-47, we read: “44 All the believers were together and had everything in common. 45 Selling their possessions and goods, they gave to anyone as he had need. 46 Every day they continued to meet together in the temple courts. They broke bread in their homes and ate together with glad and sincere hearts, 47 praising God and enjoying the favor of all the people. And the Lord added to their number daily those who were being saved.” This passage is also known as the biblical communism text where all believers were able to satisfy their needs and lived happily. Since they believed that the Second Coming of Christ was imminent in their lifetimes, they centralized their fortunes and in so doing created bliss and happiness in each other’s lives. 5. The appeal of Christian doctrines was also very powerful as they were backed up by numerous miracles. The doctrine of the immortality of the soul, the resurrection of the dead and the doctrine of happiness in heaven attracted many believers as many miracles were performed in healing the sick and casting out demons (Stark, 1997). From a secular viewpoint, Historian Edward Gibbon would analyze the success of Christianity on the following points: the zeal of Christians which appealed even to non–Jewish peoples, the doctrine of the future life providing hope in the violent world of Rome, the miracles of the Christian Elders, the pure and pleasing lifestyle and morality of the believers and the unity and discipline of Christians that when given the chance would create a state in itself (Gibbon). Another historian Will Durant would simplify the argument by saying that Christianity eventually became the religion of choice during the Roman Empire simply because it addressed the satisfaction of human needs better than any other existing religion at that time (Durant, 1972). The Implications of the Edict of Milan The Edict of Milan had tremendous implications on the success of Christianity. On the other hand, it would have its drawbacks. Famous historian Kenneth Scott Latourette would describe the irony as Christianity’s victory and at the same time defeat. Victory in the sense that Christianity would eventually become a state religion of the empire and when the Roman Empire collapsed would eventually become a global power called the Holy Roman Empire. Defeat because it has compromised the Gospel to the point of collaboration with the powers that crucified Christ. Christianity would then be identified with the powers of this world and would inherit its propensity for war and violence as can be seen in the Crusades and in the Inquisition. This critical move gave so much power and wealth to the church but actually imperiled the Gospel. Thus Protestant Reformers would consider the Papacy as the New Babylon and New Religious Movements would look at the Papacy as the Great Prostitute that corrupted Christianity (Latourette, 1975). It would be after this massive expansion of Christianity, would the world witness major schisms and divisions within the Church. Michael White would see this as the transition from Jesus to Christianity. He would argue that Jesus would not have desired the Church to grow as a powerful global state religion termed as Christianity. He would look at the issues behind the church schisms and divisions as issues regarding power and control of wealth and politics that have nothing to do with what Jesus would like to say. The Great Schism between the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Western Roman Church was actually a political division. The numerous so called “heresies” are actually threats to the power of the Church (White, 2004) and may not necessarily be threats to the Gospel. The dominant model that the Church identified with after the Edict of Milan is that of statism rather than community-Christendom rather than a community of believers. Whereas the early Christian community was happily cooperating with each other, the Christendom church meddled in wars of conquests and the affairs of the state. Methodist Deacon David Clark would in fact advocate Christians to break the mould of Christendom and start living the Christian community dynamics with an active laity and a diaconal church. He distinguishes Christendom church from community church and calls for the formation of a diaconal church which is conglomerations of communities forming the global community (Clark). Latin American Liberation Theologian Gustavo Gutierrez traces back the Christendom model to the Edict of Milan when the sword and the cross were in partnership with conquest and colonization. At the same time, he goes back to the original Jesus who was in fact against the powers of the colonizers of his time which are the Romans. He reminds us of the Jesus who were very critical of the scribes, Sadducees, and Pharisees of his time because they have used the temple to collect taxes for Rome. Gutierrez argues with the mission statement of Christ which can be found in Luke 4:18-19 which reads: 18“The Spirit of the Lord is on me, because he has anointed me to proclaim good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim freedom for the prisoners and recovery of sight for the blind, to set the oppressed free, 19to proclaim the year of the Lord’s favor.” Thus for Gutierrez, the Christendom model of being church must be replaced with the church of the poor model which is more akin with the Jesus of the Gospels. In fact the Protestant Reformers and the inner movements from the Catholic Church had these in mind. (Gutierrez, 1983). Today, when poverty is killing the people of the world by the millions, it is high time that we return to the Jesus of the Gospels and show the world of the original mission of Jesus which is found in Luke 4:18-19. What about heresies? The issue of heresies has wracked the Church for thousands of years now. During the Dark Ages, when religious intolerance was the name of the game, the branding and burning of heretics was a big issue in the name of the defense of the faith. These days however, in an age of science, religious freedom and multiculturalism, one can easily say he is an atheist and not get burned at the stake. Thus we can say that these are the days when the churches need not brand each other as heretics but rather simply accept each other as human beings who have universal rights. However this is not to say that there are no more real heresies these days. Heresies can be considered as real heresies when the effect of these beliefs create damage on people and violate the rights of people. Thus racism can be considered a heresy because it tramples on the rights of discriminated groups. Other heresies are beliefs that promote poverty, nuclear proliferation, war, and unreasonable violence (Eliot Lake News). Church Hierarchy and Church Divisions After the Edict of Milan, Christianity matured in structure, theology, organization, scope, and complexity. With these growth also followed major divisions. There seems to be a major correlation between the Church hierarchy and Church Schisms. The most undeniable issue here is the question of the Papacy. In fact, the Protestant Churches in their formation and birth refused to recognize the authority of the Pope. Politically and economically, as more and more protestant churches freed themselves from the power of the Roman Catholic Church, so were they able to plant the seeds of the concept of the modern nation-state. Patrick Collinson’s book relates how the Reformation triggered the formation of the modern Western Civilization and the emergence of the nation-states. The Reformation was actually a global revolution following the humanist ideals of the Renaissance. This spiritual battle for men’s souls was actually a political battle for independence from Papal power which at that time was the dominant economic, political, and cultural power (Collinson, 2006). If we interpret it thus, then we may say that the issue was not the Christ in Christianity but the Papacy and thus the differences of the churches can be seen as secondary only to the primacy of Christ in the churches. In Williams’ work, he shows that in history, the formation of Apostolic Succession of Bishops is actually related to ecclesiastical crisis. Thus the organization formation of the church is a matter of expediency and necessity which in no way should be a cause of divisions (Williams, 2005). William Henn explores the relationship between the episcopacy and the papacy in light of the call for unity by Pope John Paul II’s encyclical Ut Unum Sint. This is important as the call for dialogue with other Christian denominations started. This would also be a sound basis for talks and healthy ecumenical relationships. Henn courageously explores in history the things that are essential from the things that must be discarded without compromising important principles (Henn, 2000). However, others argue that the ecumenical initiatives of the Catholic Church lack credibility as it is still the Pope who is still considered as the supreme monarch facilitating the dialogue. Hermann Pottmeyer argues otherwise. In his book, he explores Vatican I and asserts that the dominant interpretation is not the necessarily the correct one. He argues that the centralist interpretation of Vatican I has been subsumed under the Vatican II which says that the Pope is conceived of in terms of Papal communion with other churches that the Roman Catholic Church are in dialogue with (Pottmeyer, 1998). On the other hand, it is also important to see the negative side of the Papacy, not in order to accuse nor cause division but in order to heal the past and redeem it. Peter De Rosa, a former Jesuit, gives us the dark side of the Papacy with full historical documentation. This is a factual documentation proving that the Popes are indeed human beings that are tempted by the political and economic interests of the day. Most of the information also comes from Roman Catholic sources (Rosa, 1988). What is needed: Christian Unity or Christian Reconciliation? Before efforts for unity can proceed, first there must be reconciliation. Considering the long standing differences, the wars fought, and the blood that was spilt in the past, the leaders of the church now is in a position to ask for apology. For one, the Catholic Church has already asked the pardon of the world of what happened during the Crusades. She has also asked forgiveness for what happened to specific people that were tortured and killed by the Inquisition. Now that there is already a general acceptance and tolerance of other people’s religious beliefs, perhaps it is time for reconciliation. But reconciliation for its own sake is meaningless without first acknowledging misgivings and asking forgiveness. For example, the Protestants who were persecuted by the Catholics were considered heretics by the Catholics. However the Protestants would consider them martyrs and saints. On the other hand, the Catholics who were persecuted by the Protestants were considered heretics by the Protestants but martyrs by the Catholics. The Inquisition also put to death many innocent men and women who were considered witches. Many scientists such as Giordano Bruno and Galileo also suffered under the hands of the church because of the accusation of heresy. James Given writes an enlightening account of the Inquisition in the context of the Dark Ages where feudal dynamics necessitated the use of force to control society. It was an age of religious intolerance where the terms multiculturalism and cultural relativity were never heard. By looking at the historical facts squarely and admitting the mistakes of the churches, then genuine reconciliation and dialogue can now be ready to really take place (Given, 2001). Jesus, the Bible and the Church The point being said here is that Jesus is not limited to the church or to even Christianity itself. The God-man Jesus cannot be a monopoly of one man such as the pope nor any other leader of any denomination. Most if not all of the Christian churches believe in the primacy of the Bible. With this in mind, the book of James G. McCarthy is very enlightening. With the spirit of openness and dialogue between different churches becoming stronger, this provides a stepping stone for realizing who the real Christ is beyond the differences of Christian denominations. He brings us back to the Scriptures as the main point of unity among all denominations. He provides: A comparison of Sacred Scripture with 400 years of Catholic Catechism. A synopsis of catholic teaching regarding heaven, grace, human action and biblical truth. A balanced view of church hierarchy and the message of Jesus. An assertion of faith in Christ as Savior relative to the theological differences that have wracked the churches for a long time (McCarthy, 1995). These days there is a movement across the planet saying yes to spirituality and no to organized religion. As dialogues between Christian churches are ongoing and inter-religious dialogue continues, more and more people are more inclined to share their spiritual journeys without ever being religious about it. In Bennett and Buckingman’s work, they have documented the lives of 50 priests who found profound spiritual insights and became less concerned about religious differences. Far from Rome and Near to God by these two authors provides touching stories of priests who discovered the Christ beyond the Church. The larger importance of this work is found in places where human pride and greed have put up massive barriers for the Gospel to penetrate (Bennett & Buckingham, 2009). Another important resource that would help us bring back the Jesus to Christianity that would appeal to many denominations is the book by Carlos Abesamis entitled The Third Look at Jesus. Abesamis studied the history of Bible writing and have analyzed biblical text written in Aramaic, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew translations for more than 20 years. In this work, he says that the First Look at Jesus was how the apostles looked at him during his time. The Second Look at Jesus is the dominant perspective of the churches today which is heavily influenced by Greek Philosophy and Christendom theology when the Church and the State were still united during the feudal and Dark Ages. The Third Look at Jesus is akin to the First Look and finds affinity with how the poor, oppressed and the Third World countries like to see Jesus (Abesamis, 1990). As the Vatican II calls for the preferential option for the poor and as many churches considers poverty as a major global problems that the churches should contend, this book would come in handy and would promote ecumenism at the grassroots level. Also just like the humanist philosophies that broke the philosophical blackness of the Dark Ages, focusing on Christ and the issues that plague humanity as a whole can bring unity into the divided Christian churches. Hope for Unity in the Ecumenical Movement As the churches further divided into various sects and denominations, the question of credibility now begins to dawn on many people. How can people believe in the One Christ when the churches are so divided and are even fighting against each other? Thus the call for unity among the churches became the primary concern of the ecumenical movement. Thus it is imperative to study ecumenism and its implications for the future of Christianity. An enlightening discussion on the history of ecumenism can be found in the document of the World Council of Churches. Edited by Briggs, Oduyoye and Tsetsis, this compilation of documents on the history of ecumenism provides hope and the accumulated experience of the efforts towards oneness (Briggs, Amba, & Tsetsis, 2004). Walter Kasper synthesizes the fruits of the ecumenical dialogue by determining the levels of ecumenical oneness brought about by the ecumenical dialogue. These dialogues evolved from simple dialogues of organizational expediency, to symbolic unity, to liturgical unity, and then to unity of action on issues that confront humanity as a whole such as global debt, nuclear proliferation, global poverty and others (Kasper, 2009). Mackay elevates the effort towards ecumenical unity into a science wherein dialogue and mutual cooperation between different churches can be accomplished. With enough theological exposition on the importance of ecumenism he outlines a systematic approach towards Christian unity (Mackay, 1964). Edmund Schlink advocates that the key to ecumenical unity is not to focus on doctrinal and organizational differences but to focus on Christ. This is the greatest unity that we Christians from different sects and denominations can ever achieve. With Christ at the center, all the rest becomes secondary (Schlink, 1983). It is also important to note the classic Catholic Encyclical on the call for Ecumenism. The Unitatis Redintegratio is the Vatican II’s Decree on Ecumenism. This is a radical break from the previous calls of the Papacy for other churches to simply “return to the fold”. In this Encyclical, there is a tacit recognition of the independence of other churches and the call is not to unite under the Pope but for the Christian believers to unite in Christ (Paul P. 6., November 21, 1964.). Christianity and Science We cannot also overlook the impact of science on Christianity. Secularism and modernity has a particularly strong impact on Christianity in terms of dwindling church membership and the rise of agnosticism. Karen Armstrong argues that there should be no debate between science and religion. In fact, with the current scientific discoveries of quantum physics and multiple universes in astrophysics, the God question is now being revived. Now there is a dialogue between theologians and scientists in which the results are profound and astonishing. Armstrong believes that if we draw on the insights of the past, we can develop a faith that has profound impact on our rapidly changing world (Armstrong, 2009). A necessary prerequisite for the unity of the churches is to come to terms with science and modernity. Christianity must have to face this fact if she is to survive the post modern world. Already, church membership is dwindling and if Christian churches do not address the problem of meaning in a scientific and secular culture, Christianity as a whole may become extinct. The book by Ian Barbour entitled “Religion in an Age of Science” opens up the points for dialogue between religion and science. He enumerates the following hard questions and issues to be faced: 1. What is the role of religion in an age of science? 2. Can we find a Christianity that is relevant in an age of science? 3. How can we relate science and religion? 4. What are the models and paradigms that science and Christianity commonly use? 5. How can we respond to the question of religious pluralism and cultural relativism? 6. How are the findings of modern physics consistent with Christian metaphysics? 7. How are the findings of astrophysics consistent with creationism? 8. How are the findings of evolutionism consistent with the theology of continuing creation? 9. How are the findings of science related to the deeper meaning of being human? 10. How can we deepen our Christian understanding of God and nature with the current discoveries of science today (Barbour, 1990)? Rob Bell helps us to usher in a united Christian church in a new world when he wrote the book “What we talk about when we talk about God”. I quote “I've written this book because there's a growing sense that when it comes to God, we're at the end of one era and the start of another, an entire mode of understanding and talking about God is dying as something new is being birthed (Bell, 2013)." He relates that when we talk about God today, one risks the label of being too primitive as such topic is no longer popular in a highly scientific world. This implies that an old religion is dying but at the same time there is still this secret spiritual longing at the feeling of awe and reverence of nature. Bell leads us into a new way of talking about God which is away from doctrinal or theological differences but nearer to the heart. This book brings back vitality and freshness to the otherwise stale and dysfunctional way some churches conduct their ministry. Rob Bell introduces us to a God who is always leading us to a better future and to a better life (Bell, 2013). Urgent Challenges and the Call for Unity The times we have today are very critical. There are important issues not only Christianity but to the survival of humanity as a whole. One issue that threatens humanity as a whole is the possibility of nuclear annihilation. Right now, all the nuclear armaments of the world combine can destroy ten planets the size of the earth. Because of nuclear weapons, the conduct of war today is towards total destruction because whoever gets to shoot the first strike wins. Thus everybody wants to strike first and when all of them do, the planet can be destroyed instantly. Moreover, the decision to make a nuclear attack depends on only few people. Thus Christians must not only unite for the sake of unity but unite in order to save the world. Gerard A. Vanderhaar writes an enlightening book advocating for non violence and against nuclear armaments with scriptural support. This is one area that all Christians in the world can unite for and make the world a better place to live in (Vanderhaar, 1982) Another issue that threatens the planet as a whole is climate change. There is a global scientific consensus that climate change is real and that if we do not act fast, the survival of the human race would be at stake in about 30 years. Without addressing the issue of climate change now, the efforts for Christian unity would be a practice in futility since we are all going to die anyway. Thus Christians in the world today should unite to save the environment. Spencer, White, and Vroblesky co-authored an important book on this topic entitled “Christianity, Climate Change, and Sustainable Living”. This book expresses concern about the massive amounts of waste that human produce which are actually destroying the life-support systems of the planet. They ask the question on how Christians can address the issue of climate change. They push forward the Christian changes necessary in creating a new lifestyle which is in harmony with the earth. They advocate for policy directions which Christians can lobby in order to reverse the process of global warming. They assert that Christian engagement in these issues are necessary and important not only as they are based on scripture but because we need to save the planet as a whole. A chapter of the book is dedicated to suggesting practical solutions for Christian engagement in the personal level to the community level and to the national and international levels. This is actually an area where science and religion can be in partnership with in creating a better world (Spencer, White, & Vroblesky, 2009). Another issue confronting the planet is world hunger. To date, there are about 40,000 children who are five years old and below who are dying of hunger and poverty related disease every day. The message of the Bible is very clear on this. We can see in the Old Testament the call for justice of the prophets and the jubilee year. In the New Testament, Jesus clearly showed a preferential option for the poor. This is one area where Christians can unite to demonstrate to the whole world that God sent Jesus to bring good news to the poor. Joseph Grassi gives us an enlightening discussion on world hunger and the Eucharist demonstrating that Christ’s body broken for the salvation of all can be an inspiration for Christians to solve the problem of world hunger. His book “Broken Bread and Broken Bodies” illustrates that Christian participation in the deep meaning of the Eucharist can actually prompt a call for sacrifice and sharing to end world hunger (Grassi, 2004). The Christian call for unity in the modern world is not only relevant; it is also timely and can help heal our broken world. If we are to show the world the love of Christ in our unity, let our unity be for the healing for the world- so that we shall all be transformed in the love of the Holy Spirit. Bibliography Abesamis, C. (1990). A Third Look at Jesus. Manila: Claretian Publications. Armstrong, K. (2009). The Case for God: What religion really means. Bodlyhead. Barbour, I. (1990). Religion in an Age of Science. San Francisco: Harper San Francisco. Bell, R. 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Global Christianity: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Christian Population . Massachussets: Center for the Study of Global Christianity. Vanderhaar, G. (1982). Christians and non violence in the nuclear age: Scripture, the Arms Race, and You. Twenty Third Publications. White, L. M. (2004). From Jesus to Christianity. . San Francisco: HarperCollins . Williams, R. L. (2005). Bishop Lists: Formation of Apostolic Succession of Bishops in Ecclesiastical Crises. Gorgias Press LLC. Read More