Hindu Tradition in Action in Texas - Research Paper Example

? Hindu Tradition in action in Texas Hinduism consists of many sects and also many denominations. Out of the many, two important ones are Shaivism and Vaishnavism. Hindus believe that to reach god, one may not follow the same path. So these different sects show different paths leading to god. Shaivism laid emphasis on the love of god and the redemption that has been done for mankind, while Vaishnavism laid more importance on the God of the skies. Saivism was conceived in the state of Tamil Nadu in India, where the Dravidians are mainly found. It became a proper religion only between 3rd and 10th century AD. Under Saivism, Shiva is considered to be the supreme God, with his two forms being the lingam and the human form. Among the variants of the Human form, the most important is the dancing posture called Nataraja and also Dakshinamoorthy, the instructor of four sages. Vaishnavism on the other hand has its roots in Northeren India where the Aryans were mostly concentrated. It became renown in the 3rd century AD. Vaishnavites believe that Vishnu is the supreme power, and that god is personal and the ultimate goal of life is to be the servant of god, through faith or Bhakti. Modern Vaishnavites also believe that Vishnu takes many incarnations every eon ( Bhandarkar, 48,62, 160,165) Temples Along with the differences in sects and cultures between north and south India, considerable difference in the style of architecture has also been noticed. The most prominent parts by which they can be differentiated are their superstructures, and also the plan, vertical structure, statues and motifs. The major part of northern India, from the foothills of the Himalayas to the Bengal region has temples in the northern style; whereas the southern style was concentrated to the more southerly interiors had a consistent style. Mixture of the two occurs towards the central parts of India (Temple Styles, 86). The temples of India were classified as according to their typological features and were divided into Nagara, Dravida and Vesara styles, mainly signifying square, octagonal or apsidal ended shapes and these dictate the other structural parts of the temple. The Nagara style was common in Northern India, whereas the Dravida style was famous in southern India. Building of a temple in India in those times were mainly the religious beliefs of the kings who ascended the throne. So most of the temples were known according to the king under whom they were built. Various styles have been exported to places all over the world, including Texas (Temple Styles, 88). Around thirty four Hindu temples exist in Texas, with about fifteen in Houston and Dallas. Various types of temples have emerged in the United States, such as the Sri Meenakshi Temple in Houston, which is an example of a temple dedicated to one particular deity, Goddess Meenakshi, but in keeping with the tradition of unity in diversity, with so many sects in the Hindu culture, the worship of Shiva is also done here, in the form of Lord Shri Sundareswara. Vaishnava traditions are also celebrated as the temple is also dedicated to Lord Venkateshwara, another form of Vishnu. Thus this temple does not concentrate on any one sect but provides a multiple option of pursuing ones faith (Brady, 87; Laderman and Leon, 102). Majority of these temples were built according to the Vastu Shastra of the Vedic period, with modern adaptations. These new temples have spacious halls, and used for weddings and other cultural occasions. In most temples there is one main deity, but the deities of the other sects and customs are also recognized. This is because of lack of space in foreign land, but it also helps to foster good relations between the various sects present there (Badlani, 329-330). For a decision, as to which deity to be made the main one in a temple, becomes a much debated topic. Various devotees lobby for the different sects, and sometimes a temple that is supposed to bring in peace and harmony becomes a cause of division. Reaching a consensus is very difficult due to large number of different sects and devotees. The temples also function as institutions for teaching the next generation of children the rituals, through language, music and dance classes. Often the temples have a large community hall associated with it, where most of the functions take place, such as Hindu weddings, engagements and Deepavali programs (Laderman and Leon, 103-104). Hindu Customs Hindus hold their parents at the level of God, and touching feet is a common way of showing devotion and seeking blessings. This has become less popular now; still many continue to do so. Many also worship the basil tree, as it is considered holy. Hindus also celebrate the birth of their child with ceremonies. Weddings are a grand affair and go on for days with a number of ceremonies and offerings. The death is symbolized by a gathering and offering prayers. The Hindus cremate their dead, since it is environmentally polluting, they now have the option of electric crematoriums. The festivals of Diwali and Dussehra are celebrated with style. Most homes are lighted up. Special offerings are made in the temples (Badlani, 285-292). Hindu Way of life in Texas Communities in the USA observe all the major Hindu festivals and they are usually held at the temples or community centers. They also celebrate important dates of the Western calendar. In South Indian style temples there are different types of time specific votive rituals and usually coincide with the holidays in summer in the US. Priests worship and offer prayers on behalf of the people gathered. People at such festival times either sit and chat at one place or go and visit the other places where the festival is held. There are no such days as the most important, but usually the weekends are preferred when people are off from work. Regular prayers consist of ‘aarti’ where a camphor flame is lit and the priests chant prayers. In the North Indian temples, the prayers are usually congregational and songs of special types called ‘bhajans’ are sung. In most of these temples the devotees are given ‘prasad’ or fruit and vegetables blessed by the goddess. On the first of January many of these temples have special rituals and viewings of the deity. The deities are dressed in grand clothes and offerings are made. Mothers Day is also celebrated with the deity worshipped as the mother, and graduation day celebrated by worshipping the goddess of knowledge, ‘Saraswati’ (Laderman and Leon, 105) Differences in all the modes and methods of worship and structural difference exist between the temples in US and those in India, but to keep the faith and the culture intact, the temples in the US conduct dance classes and yogic exercises for training the Hindu culture to the younger generations. Performing arts hold a very high value according to Hindu tradition. Performing them in public events is a tradition and to display their skills before everyone. Hindu temples in the US also sponsor humanitarian services, such as blood donations and food drives. The blood donation is considered quite an offshoot from the Hindu traditions as blood is considered a polluting material. Other activities include working with Christian organizations (Laderman and Leon, 104-105). Conclusion Over the years many rituals have changed, along with the differences in lifestyle and work culture, people have modified many of the rules. Overall, a communal harmony is what the Hindus in any foreign land aim to achieve. Building of temples has not only brought them to mix with each other and know each others rituals, it has also dissolved the borders between them. All sects now observe all the different festivals of the different sects and the Hindu religion as a whole is prospering in Texas. References Bhandarkar, Sir Ramkrishna Gopal, Vaisnavism, Saivism and Minor Religious Systems, New Delhi : Asian Educational Services, 1987 Brady, Marilyn Dell, The Asian Texans, Texas A&M University Press, 2004 Hiro G. Badlani, Hinduism: Path of the Ancient Wisdom, Bloomington: iUniverse, 2008 Laderman, Gary and Leon, Luis D., Religion and American cultures: an encyclopedia of traditions, diversity, and popular expressions, Volume 1, Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2003   Introduction If literature belongs to the domain of art and if ‘Art’ means artificial and archaic presentation of the surroundings, then it is doubtful whether Kabir’s poems can be considered as artistic or literary pieces. His poems are always perfect instances of the ancient Hindu ‘Sahajia’ doctrine. In most instances, these works consider the example of simple things in life to deliver superior knowledge. However, if art is a means to upgrade people’s thought and living, the poems of Kabir definitely deserve to hold an important position in the history of Indian literature. His simple words contain profound philosophy beyond the day-to-day trivial engagements. Kabir expressed in his songs what he believed in his life. These poems are a culmination of several religious doctrines which have been espoused for man’s upliftment. This paper makes an endeavor to interpret Poem No. 19 and 22 in the context of Kabir’s religious ideologies. Jnana and Karma in relation to Bhakti According to Hinduism, ‘Jnana’ refers to the ultimate knowledge about the relation between oneself and the Almighty, between ‘Atma’ and ‘Bramha’. This is applicable to poem 22. As the generation and demolition of waves are not segregated from water, the rise and fall of individuals in their karmic cycle of life cannot separate them from their origin – ‘Paramatma’. That’s the knowledge nature gives us to lead to our realization of the “Secret One inside us” who move the whole universe like the beads of ‘tulsi’. (Kabir, Poem 22) The Hindu Philosophy defines ‘Karma’ as man’s actions. Every human being has to bear the result of his actions according to whether his past “karma” has been good or bad. The hint of rising and falling back of the waves in poem 22 generates the same sense and the impeccability of nature’s rule. This is how Kabir has espoused the doctrine of the inevitability of “karma” in the poem. (Kabir, Poem 22) In Kabir’s poems, the ideas of Jnana and Karma are intricately woven into his main ideology of Bhakti. The saint emphatically declares that the purpose of every human life is to achieve “salvation” during its lifetime on this earth. “What you call salvation belongs to the time before death” (Kabir, Poem 19) Once the human being attains the true enlightenment of his soul, he is able to realize God and witness His Divine presence. Poet Kabir has also given his followers an idea about the ways of achieving enlightenment. The spiritual seekers are encouraged to exercise their thinking powers and expand their intellect to attain true “Jnana” of the Supreme Being. “Think….and think…..while you are alive” (Kabir, Poem 19) Exploring the path of knowledge, the human being ultimately comes to realize that God resides within himself. Further, the poet encourages the spiritualist to pursue the path of “karma” and engage in fruitful action by breaking the shackles of inactivity. “If you don’t break your ropes while you are alive, do you think ghosts will do it after?” (Kabir, Poem 19) However, the seeker has to be steadfast in the belief that the final aim of all his actions is to attain salvation and experience the Creator. Kabir has assured his followers that if they are able to seek God intensely in all their actions, this strength of their desire will encourage them to accomplish all their karma. Kabir’s view of Bhakti and Dharma ‘Bhakti’ primarily means the love and respect of the devotee for God and this has several connotations in different religious practices. Amongst them, the ‘Vaishnava’ saints express their love for the Supreme Lord Krishna and regard Him to be the centre of the entire universe. For His devotees, there is nothing beyond Him; knowing Krishna is to know the ‘creation’. We can find the same thought in the final lines of the poems where Kabir is advising his followers to feel God’s ecstatic presence in themselves through the prayer beads in their garlands. (Mc Leod, 139) Saint Kabir propagated his religious philosophies for uplifting the common masses. Therefore, it was a simple and straight-forward ideology. In order to make the profound religious thoughts attainable for the commoners, Kabir culminated various religious principles and molded them in accordance with his own understanding. His explanation of spiritual terminologies had its own uniqueness. (Lorenzen 226) Poem 22 delivers the same thought through a beautiful metaphor of the ocean and waves forming from it. Just like the ocean waves as they always adhere to the ocean whether they rise of fade away, so also human beings remain attached to God as they experience the ups and downs of their earthly lives. According to the Hindu philosophy, every human soul is a part of the Great Divine Power and is different from the latter only in its infinitesimally small size. Man has created these false individualistic ideas using language. Kabir asks here, “Because someone has made up the word “wave”, do I have to distinguish it from water?” He becomes more direct in the next line, “There is a Secret One inside us”. (Kabir, Poem 22) Through his writings, Kabir has encouraged his followers to form an intimate relationship of love and affection with God: “If you make love with the Divine now, in the next life you will have the face of satisfied desire. So plunge into the truth, find out who the Teacher is, Believe in the Great Sound.” (Kabir, poem 19) Therefore, Kabir advises men to submit their heart and soul on the feet of the Lord and set out to imbibe the experiences of life. This is the “Bhakti” doctrine. If the devotee is able to adhere to this philosophy and perform his duties diligently, he will finally be able to witness the Divine Presence in his life. (McLeod, Schomer, 139) Kabir’s Nirguna Bhakti as different from other “Bhakti” doctrines As has been mentioned in the previous section that the word ‘Bhakti’ in Hindu scriptures refer to the love and devotion of the worshiper for the Almighty. Saint Kabir believed in the doctrine of “Nirguna Bhakti’. ‘Nirguna’ means truth which has no “shape, outline, gender or form”. Initially this concept was raised by Shankaracharya, the well-known Hindu saint in the 9th century Christian era, and was later followed by many Hindu saints. The stream of ‘Nirguna Bhakti’ thrives on the unity of the entire creation. It says that the ‘Creator’ or the ‘Supreme Power’ dwells inside human soul. He is inseparable from His devotees. The followers of “Nirguna Bhakti” as espoused by Kabir, primarily worshipped a universal God who was believed to formless. However, the followers simultaneously believe their “Gurus” (the religious teachers) to be partial embodiment of the Supreme Being and therefore regard them as persons of veneration. (Gooptu, 148) During the 14th- 17th century AD, the ‘Bhakti Movement’ was formed as a protest against the forceful conversion of Hindus by the Muslim rulers of that time. Bhakti Movement embraced various Hindu gods and goddesses altogether. Many Bhakti songs of that time praised Krishna, Shiva, Brahma and even Kali. These songs were always concentrated on the Hindu myths and philosophies. Kabir broke these bounds and liberated the term Bhakti, in its true sense, for all. With him, the ‘Sahajia’ philosophy was circulated in Muslim ‘Sufis’ also. In Bengal, we find many ‘Bauls’ who worship ‘Allah’ and sing for Krishna. Kabir’s view of Bhakti substantiates his own identity in his own words – ‘The son of Allah and Rama at once’. Conclusion Saint Kabir was a foremost proponent of the “Bhakti Movement” which flourished in India during the 14th-17th century. He encouraged his followers to form an intimate relationship with God based on love and devotion and worship Him with sincere veneration. This path of devotion was one of the ways to attain salvation and ultimate God Realization. These ideals are also reflected in the poems written by Kabir. This paper has attempted to interpret Kabir’s religious philosophy of devotion as described in two of his poems. He also advocated the idea of “Nirguna Bhakti” which believed God to be devoid of any form and espoused His worship with sincere devotion. Kabir’s poems also reflect the ideas of Jnana and Karma which are intricately woven into his main ideology of Bhakti. Therefore, even to this day, Kabir’s writings are a living testimony of his unique religious philosophies. References 1. Gooptu, Nandini The politics of the urban poor in early twentieth-century India UK, Cambridge University Press, 2001 2. Lorenzen, David, N. Bhakti Religion in North India: Community Identity and Political Action USA, Suny Press, 1995 3. McLeod, W.H & Schomer, K. The Sants: studies in a devotional tradition of India India, Motilal Banarasidaa Publications 1987 Worksheet 17 Ans.1) Claudius Julianus was the emperor for only nineteen months, and within that time he left a deep impact. The restoration movement that he undertook started off with him renouncing his Christian upbringing and declaring himself Hellene, with a high interest in anti-Christian philosophy. His Hellenism consisted of reviving old priesthoods, funding festivals and temple renovations. He did all this in a way that made him seem overzealous. He criticized Christian literature and barred Christians from teaching classics, and supported the Jews (Christianity and the Imperial House, pp 48). Julianus understood the task of the priest and once he came to power, he engaged himself in a rigorous task of reviving old priesthoods, festivals, temple restorations and creating a network of Hellene priests that would teach non Christian values. In his letter to Theodore, he tells him that priests should be those people who would respect the right god and worship accordingly. Christian priests were liable to be removed or chastised. Julianus was upset with the Christian teachers because he thought of them to be of lacking cultural origin and questionable origin and according to his wishes he passed a law barring Christians from teaching Greek literature (Christianity and the Imperial House, pp 48). Julian favored the Jews and viewed them as a race with a cultural and religious background and permitted them to rebuild their temples in Jerusalem. He allowed them to resume sacrifices and prayers in his name, as a way of showing triumph over Christianity. Ans.2) Ephraim was a teacher and a hymnographer for a church in Nisibis. Following the disastrous campaign by Julian, against the Persians, followed by the surrender of Julian’s successor, Jovian, Nisibis came under the Persians. Ephraim and others found them put up in the city of Edessa, where Ephraim became a deacon and directed choirs that sang his compositions. Ephraim was a Christian author of the Roman Empire. He aggressively defended Nicene orthodoxy against Arians. His Hymns Against Julian show how he attempted to equal Julian’s non-Christian rule. In the first hymn he describes Julian’s rising as the coming of the bad shepherd. In another hymn he describes Julian’s paganism revival attempts by drawing parallels between the idolatry and sexual license. Julians death had been described in a joyful tone in Hymn three as a fall of a pagan king. He calls Julian a Hellenic king and makes fun of him (Christianity and the Imperial House, pp 53). Ans.3) Asthanasius was the bishop of Alexandria. In his Easter letter of 367 he defines the books which are accepted by the Church. In his letter he mentions some 27 books which were considered as relevant (Christianity and Imperial House, pp 17). Ans.4) Julian lived his early years in a constant fear of having a similar fate as his father. He spent his childhood in isolation, and early manhood roaming about and dreaming while being a student. He had a love for philosophy and passive Christianity, but the fate of his father and brother affected his mind and he started hating his cousin and uncle Constantius. He now obeyed his stepmother Helena. In 351 Julian converted to a mystical form of Neo-Plutonism, believed in a single creator and recognized the Sun as the giver of life. He was drawn towards Greek gods and them as his benefactors, friends and saviors. In 351 he was given the title Caesar, and he married Helena, Constantius’s sister (From Constantine to Chalcedon, pp 594-598). Ans.5) Constantius doubted his powers, but Julian proved himself to be a successful general. H recaptured Cologne, and the cooperation between him and Constantius was evident. He caught Alamanni and Chnodomer in the following year. He later became a philosopher with a long beard and led an army against the Christians and an equally powerful emperor (From Constantine to Chalcedon, pp 598 – 600). Ans.6) Julian wanted to remove Christianity from Rome. The Roman Senate consisted of members who would support his views, but there was a mismatch in the beliefs of the common people and the Senators. Many towns had already become fully Christians and Julian couldn’t close temples. He undertook a number of policies, such as dismantling the church and the government. Church’s privileges were scrapped, priests made to rebuild churches and economic reforms undertaken. He started taxes and took up the administration in his own hands, and some hail him as the liberator. He set out to revive a lost priesthood and bring back Helenism. However he failed, being on the throne for a few months (From Constantine to Chalcedon, pp 600-604). Ans.7) Julian misunderstood the strength of Christianity, and he dreamt of defeating Alexander the Great. In Antioch, he tried to tell the Galanic priest Arsacius, how paganism was not being endorsed and how poor were mistreated. He then made laws against the Christians teaching the literature. Problems in food supply cropped up in Antioch. His undertaking to restore Jewish temples at Jerusalem also made him unpopular (From Constantine to Chalcedon, pp 604 – 606). Ans.8) His Persian campaign of 362-363 was a hopeless endeavor. Despite warnings, he set out in 363, and conquered almost all of Mesopotamia. After 10 days of war with the Persians he was hit by a spear. He was succeeded by Jovian. The war was lost, and Jovian had to sign a treaty giving out many cities, including Nisibis to the Persians (From Constantine to Chalcedon, pp 607 – 608). Ans.9) After Eusebius dies in 341, Julian and his brother Gallus had been imprisoned in Cappadocia. He was a reader at the church for 6 years. He knew the Bible well and also studies Greek literature and liberal arts under Mardonios. Julian and Gallus used to exchange arguments for and against the gods. In 361 Julian wrote a letter to Alexandria claiming to be a non Christian, but it was known after Constantius’s death. He believed Sun to be the most important with subordinates, a theory called monotheism. Julian’s restoration of Polytheistic ways of worship included rebuilding of shrines, with Christians having to pay for those. State tax was prevented from being used in church welfare. He excluded Christians from teaching the literature of Greeks and saw them as unreligious and cultureless. To worry Galileans, he ordered the restoration of temples in Jerusalem. This would revive sacrifices and vex the Christians (Julian and the Church, 293-309). Worksheet 18 Ans.1) Ambrose became the bishop of Milan from 374 to 397. Before that however he was a politician and a governor. His speech at the funeral of Theodosius doesn’t eulogize an emperor but, but makes imperial powers less important to Christian authority. His speech was long and he advices Theodosius’s sons and heirs to be obedient and humble. He brings in Helena through the emphasis of a debt owed by the imperial power to Christ, on account of Helena’s discovery of the True Cross (Christianity and the Imperial House, pp 17). Ans.2) Julians untimely death brought back Christianity to the forefront. Lucifer of Cagliari created disturbances. Naples, Rome and Antioch saw conflict. Jovian ruled for a short time. Valentinian I ascended the throne and resulted in the winning of Nicene orthodoxy. Valentinian remained neutral in religious conflicts and didn’t interfere (From Constantine to Chalcedon, pp 616-617). Ans.3) Ambrose’s father died, and when he was young and he was brought up by his mother and sister. He studied about Aristotle. He became a governor and later the priest in 373. He was a priest from 374 to 397 (From Constantine to Chalcedon, pp 618-619). Ans.4) Ambrose helped to forge a relationship between the state and the church. This was an outcome of a conflict with Arianism. During the reign of Valentinium supported the growth of relics and leading a conventional life. When the emperor died, his son Gratian came to the throne. His half brother from a stepmother became the emperor of Balkans. When the Goths attacked and the emperor fell, Gratian had taken the reins and contacted Theodosius. Ambrose had his influence over him, and through previous results Gratian was respectful and asked Ambrose to help him. Ambrose wanted Illyrian bishops to trial for heresy. H e brought pressure on Gratian and the priests were punished. The following year the Roman aristocracy tried to have Altar of victory restored, but received similar treatment from Ambrose (From Constantine to Chalcedon, pp 618-621). Ans.5) These events relating to Ambrose and his treatment brought empress Justina and her court from Sirmium to Milan to save the throne for her son and protect Milan fromm an invasion from Magnus Maximus of Italy. Ambrose’s aid was essential. Justinia through her prefect in Italy, asked for the basilica situated outside the walls of Milan for homoean worship, Ambrose refused. Ambrose refused to give up a temple of God. An altercation happened between the bishop and high officials, and the court had to give way in such church state relations (From Constantine to Chalcedon, pp 622). Later digging revealed two martyrs skeletons, which proved the Christian God and Justinia had to give in. Ans.6) Theodosius clashed with Ambrose. At Euphrates, a catholic mob consisting of monks had looted and destroyed a Jewish synagogue and Valentinian chapel. Theodosius asked Ambrose to repair both and punish the men who were guilty. Ambrose said that Jewish had been pagan in times of Julian and deserved it, as they were left unpunished from then and the bishop won again (From Constantine to Chalcedon, pp 623-624). Ans.7) Damascus was a deacon and a one time supporter of Felix which the majority of the Romans believed after Liberius’s death, but some who didn’t considered Ursinus as the deacon. Conflicts took place and Ursinus’s supporters were killed. Valentinian also disliked Damascus; it was only Gratian who forgave all his faults. Damascus died in 384 and his successor Siricius had few intellectual pretentions and did not hide his disregard for new breed of ascetic intellectuals in the West. He was a tough administrator and in 15 years he made great progress on the already founded authority by Damascus (From Constantine to Chalcedon, pp 626-628). Ans.8) Basil the Great and his brothers were very important in the history of Greece. Eastern monasticism, a Trinitaian orthodoxy that mixed piety and intellectual rigor, laid the foundation of Byzantine Christianity. The mixture of classical learning and dogmatic Christianity of Eastern orthodoxy came up because of them. Basil seeked austerity through Christian philosophy (From Constantine to Chalcedon, pp 632-633). Ans.9) In 376, Basil tried another embassy. He wanted Damascus to condemn Apollinaris of Laodicea. Apollinaris was excommunicated. Apollinaris views about Christianity became popular in 370. He was a hardcore Nicene and a correspondent of Basil. Apollonaris had been found to influence Basils decision of acceptance of homoousion. Apollonaris rejected the existence of a human mind in Christ. He said if one believed Christ to exist, then one had to believe in the fact that Christ had a free will and could sin (From Constantine to Chalcedon, pp 633- 34). Ans.10) Theodosius spent much of 379 at Danube restoring situations from catastrophe to Roman arms. Nicene minority began to take heart. They invited Gregory of Sasima. There as objection to Gregory being the bishop as he was already a bishop of Sasima. Theodosius became the new emperor then, and he ordered everyone to follow what apostle Peter had taught Romans, and later by Damascus and Peter of Alexandria. Evrything else was considered fake. This was how he tried to bring universal Catholic faith in the whole empire (From Constantine to Chalcedon, pp635-637). Ans.11) Theodosius took steps to stop all types of deviations and paganism. A law against Manicheans was passed. Informers were used to denounce people to stop from deviating. Combination of mystical with the intellectual, reason and intuition contributed to Christianity from the Cappadociums. In Antioch, and nearby, Thoedore, bishop of Mopsuenestia said that there were two natures in Christ. Jesus was a man and was a created order. God was the creator, and the division between the two cannot be removed (From Constantine to Chalcedon, pp 640-641). Read More