The Socrates' Philosophy - Research Paper Example

 The Socrates' Philosophy Socrates is a true philosopher by definition. He is endowed with the special ability to think deeply about serious issues and develop his own clear ideas about them. I have respected and liked Socrates as depicted through Plato’s writings. Socrates’s philosophies concern serious issues like the reasons for the differences between Gods, the definition of pious and impious actions, the desirable, good and just things and their converse things in life. He has also pondered about the certainty called “death” which all human lives must succumb to. The great man’s ideas about these somber issues are portrayed in his conversations with Euthyphro, Glaucon, Polemarchus, Adeimantus, Cephalus, Thracymachus, Cleitophon and so on. At the same time, Socrates is an extremely intelligent man. His way of conveying his philosophies through natural conversations without trying to preach his ideas, is truly remarkable. He effortlessly manages to make aware his conversation partners especially Euthyphro and Glaucon of the mistakes in their thought process and also shows them what the right thinking ought to be. Euthyphro and Glaucon don’t even realize how they are gradually brought out of their fallacious ideas and enlightened with the right philosophies. Another admirable quality of Socrates is his humble nature. Inspite of being such a famous philosopher of his times he is never heard speaking from a pedestal with any of his partners. He never boasts about the genuity of his philosophies. The man has a calm confidence in his ways; it is almost as if he is assured of the universality of his philosophies and does not need to dictate it to his listeners. Euthyphro comes across as a headstrong man who has his own principles in life. His character resembles that of a normal human person living in ancient Greece. Young and fiery Euthyphro believes in leading his life according to his own ideals. He is so blinded by his own principles that he fails to see the folly that he commits in persecuting his own father of murder. However, Euthyphro's character resembles ancient people of those days. Most of them were honorable men who believed in leading a life of high principles. I have found Euthyphro to be like a real-life person. There is a section of the population who are so steadfast in their own thinking that they often fail to realize the mistakes that they commit by acting according to their own ideas. Of course, in the end Euthyphro is enlightened by Socrates and retrieved to the right path of thinking. Glaucon is also portrayed as a strong character. He does not hesitate to engage in conversations with the great Socrates about serious issues like the desirable and just actions of men and about the code of conduct of humans. He discusses the grave issue of “human life and its end” with his partner. Glaucon possesses his own ideas regarding the issues and argues with Socrates courageously putting forward his own ideas with great zeal. He sounds futuristic when he advocates that the young generation should be told of the actions of their predecessors to make them aware of the truths of life. Glaucon says, the youth must know of the good as well the mistakes of their fathers and forefathers to form their own ideas about civilization. However, Plato as an author fails to impress. The conversations are described at length and style of narration is quite complicated. It takes the reader a considerable amount of time to grasp the meaning of their words. Perhaps, this is not the author’s fault and people in ancient Greece were used to conversing in this way. Plato has used simple English language to convey the thought of his speakers, but their ideas are repeated and re-repeated so that instead of giving a clear idea, they have created confusion in the reader’s mind. The philosophies of the speakers could have been expressed in a more straightforward and direct manner. Worksheet#6 1. This rural shrine is located 30 miles north of Rome. There are ash trees and poplar on the banks and their fall on the stream. The water is very like snow. Near to the place is a very old temple of God Clitumnus. There are shrines in the surrounding area with their own name, cult and also springs. There is a bridge to separate the sacred water from the ordinary stream. This site was presented to the people of Hispellum by Emperor Augustus and they maintain an inn there and a bathing place. (Macmullen and Lane, 42) This is a miracle accounted in the Sarapsis shrine of Thessalonike in Greece. Xenainetos once dreamt that Eurynomus was to receive Sarapsis and his sister Isis and for that purpose Xenainetos was supposed to give a letter to Eurynomus. Although he hesitated first as he was political enemy of Eurynomus, but getting the same dream again and seeing the letter below his pillar he returned home to give the letter to Eurynomus who after some reservations accepted Sarapsis and Isis. (Macmullen and Lane, 43) The village of Baetocaece was granted to the Phoenician “sky-god Zeus along with all its property and possessions and also the harvest of the current. This is so that the revenue can be spent by the priests for the maintenance of the temple. Fairs which will not be taxable should also be held with this revenue on the fifteenth and thirtieth of every month. It was also stated in the rights that the temple was not to be violated and the there should be no billeting in the village. (Macmullen and Lane, 44) In Central Greece, there is a sanctuary dedicated to the Egyptian Goddess Isis. None is allowed to live there except those who get visions of being summoned by Isis. Here, a festival is celebrated in spring and autumn every year. Those who enter the premises to clean it do not speak of the place. In the last three days of the festivals a fair is held to sell cattles, slaves and also clothes, gold and silver. In the mid-day sacrifices are done by slaughtering animals like cattle, deer, geese and guinea-hens. Some animals like sheep, pigs and goats are prohibited by sacred law. (Macmullen and Lane, 45) Religious ceremonies were held in Carthage in honor of Caelestis. This Goddess if worshipped with prayer and obscene rites. They were performed boldly by men and women in public places. (Macmullen and Lane, 46) 2. Early hymns from the reign of Augustus were similar in features with Greek hymns. The lost sections of the hymns describe the worship of Isis in upper Egypt. The surviving texts describe the various character worships of Isis in sixty Delta towns and also in other fifty-fie places overseas. (Macmullen and Lane, 50) A hymn to Isis is found in her temple in Cyme in Turkey. The texts of the hymn praises Goddess Iris by mentioning her deeds like Isis discovered crops and is known as Goddess by women. She made justice strong, ordered the course of sun, moon and stars and also brought man and woman together. (Macmullen and Lane, 51) Karpokrates praises himself in the Isiac hymns. It is written in the texts that he is original creator of temples and palaces for the gods. He originated the modes of weighing and calculating. He mixed wine and water for the first time. He ensured that no injustice is done in any court. He gave medicines to physicians. (Macmullen and Lane, 54,55) Hymn to Tyche was written by an author was not very literate. The text praises the wing-footed goddess and talks about her divine self. (Macmullen and Lane, 55) Orphic hymns are in a collection of 87. They were written by a single poet who may have belonged to a religious fraternity or cult-group. They contain philosophic views. The texts describe various divine characters like Ouranos, Sabazios and Hipta. (Macmullen and Lane, 55, 56) Epidaurian hymn is among the oldest surviving hymns and was composed by Ariphron of Sicyon. It praises Hygieia and is mentioned as the most reverend among mankind. It describes that mankind flourishes with the blessings of Hygieia. (Macmullen and Lane, 56-57) Menander Rhetor made statements on prose hymns. He said Hymns to the Gods are combinations of being celtic or apopemptic or scientific or mythical or genealogical or fictitious or precatory or deprecatory. He said that some hymns about Apollo or Hera are scientific as they describe the nature of the objects with which the gods are identified. These hymns require no prayer and should not be made public as they can seem unconvincing to the masses. (Macmullen and Lane, 60) 3. People of various cult groups usually belong to the urban lower class. They honor one god and they have a shrine in their own neighborhood. They set up religiosity without any organization in villages. They earned bequeaths from the leaders of a city and with these donations, they improve their financial status and maintain a position of dignity. Members if the cult groups engaged themselves in both social and cultural activities. They were not confined to any particular section in regard to belief and religious behavior. (Macmullen and Lane, 64) 4. In the 190s B.C.E, the Roman high commanders were honored by the Greeks as demigods. The great leaders and conquerors were treated as supernatural beings. The epitome of such supernaturalism was the Roman emperor, Julius Caesar. His son Augustus was also conferred with such honor both in the East and in the West. Such veneration was gradually accepted by all classes in Italy and also those competing for priesthood (Macmullen and Lane, 74). Some Imperial Cults are as follows:- Imperial Cult in Gytheon – it is worship of Tiberius and his father Augustus. It bears vast similarities with other religious ceremonies. The priest is to place the images of the gods in front. Music is performed and then all magistrates make their sacrifice. The festival is held for three days in honor of the three gods Augustus, Tiberius and Julia. (Macmullen and Lane, 75) Imperial Cult in Brittany – there is a temple for worship of the emperor at Rennes in Brittany. Inscriptions have been found from this temple. They describe the emperor worship and its popularity. It is adapted by many religious traditions. The statue in the temple has been built by the sons of Mars Mullo who were priests of Rome and Augustus at their own expense. (Macmullen and Lane, 76) 5. Josephus on Judaism – Judaism as a whole is a dynamic faith and it had many followers in Greece. They supported the civil wars in the era of Julius Caesar and Augustus. The Jews were governed by same laws as that of the Greeks and they maintained sacred piety. They were treated badly by the Greeks. The Jews were not given any legal rights and there were misconduct by the judges. They were forced to join the army and other public positions where there were forced to spend their money. The monies that they offered to gods were stolen and even on holy days they were dragged to court (Macmullen and Lane, 152-153). Claudius on Judaism – The Jews for many years lived in the same city as the Alexandrians. They performed their own rites and worshipped their own god. They followed their own customs. In spite of this, they demanded more privileges and even sent a separate embassy as if they stay in a different city. Claudius forbade them to do so and stop their enmity with the Greeks (Macmullen and Lane, 155). Tacitus on Judaism – The Jews form of worship was introduced by Moses. The Jews keep frequent fasts. They rest on the seventh day and work on the other six days. People who have been degraded in other races bring them contributions and presents. In this way the Jews became wealthy. They show compassion among themselves, but they treat the rest of the mankind with hatred. They adopted circumcision to distinguish themselves from other races. People who come to join them are taught to despise god and disown their country and families. They consider it a criminal act to kill infants. They believe that souls of people who die in battle or are murdered remain immortal. They bury their dead. They do not have any visible image of god as they conceive the form of god in their minds. They do not worship any images of god in their temples. (Macmullen and Lane, 161,162) The theatres ridicule the Jews and make fun of their customs. If one asks how long the other wants to live, the reply comes that “As long as the shirt of a Jew which is worn on the Sabbath”. The Jews observe Sabbatical year when they have no vegetables. The theatre actors bring in a camel and make a joke that since they avoid vegetables, so they eat the camel’s thorns. The theatres even make fun of the shaven heads of the Jews. (Macmullen and Lane, 162) 6. Pliny on Christianity – The Christians worships Christ and do not speak evil of him. On a certain day they meet before daybreak and recite a hymn for Christ. On this day they take oath to stay away from any sort of crime. After this ceremony they take food. They believe in many superstitions which include danger for many people. The Christians can be punished for their offences. If any one of them can prove that he is not a Christian then he can be pardoned. (Macmullen and Lane, 165) Lucian on Christianity – The Christians despise death as they think they can become immortal. They readily give themselves up for martyrdom. They believe they can gain immortality by worshipping Jesus Christ. (Macmullen and Lane, 167) Marcus Aurelius on Christianity – The soul of the Christians when released from the body is ready to be extinguished, scattered or to persist. (Macmullen and Lane, 168) Galen on Christianity – The Christians draw their faith from miracles and they abhor death. They refrain from cohabitation and some of them practice rectitude with such intense passion that they become at par with true philosophers. (Macmullen and Lane, 168) The spread of Christianity almost faded after the first century. In the Epistolae ad Virgines it is described how they may continue their preaching without facing scandals. The Christian do not cohabit with women. So, when they reach a place where all the believers are women, they call them together and read the Scripture to them. As the day comes to an end they summon an aged woman and ask her to give them to separate place to stay and only that woman will be allowed to bring them lamp and other requirements and then leave for her when time will come to sleep. When they reach a place where there is one woman believer, they run away from that place in the fear of tarnishing their image. When they reach a place where there are no believers, they do not read the Scripture to them nor do they sing Psalms. They maintain their holy deeds and eat and drink in the name of the God. They do not copy any customs of the heathen and remain separate from them. (Macmullen and Lane, 170-172) 7. The sections 5-6.2 tend to represent the most convincing arguments regarding the oneness of God or the Creator. According to Plato, “It is a hard task to find the Maker and Father of this universe, and, and having found him it is impossible to declare him to all”. Plato acknowledges that all the other gods are created by the one God who has created the universe. (Macmullen and Lane, 177) At this point Plato digresses from being an atheist. When the audience agrees with him, they also diverges from the identity of an atheist. This argument might be referred as biblical since it brings out the theme of Christian monotheism opposing the multiple Gods’ worship of the Greeks. Lactantius argues that the men of Athens were worshipping their destroyers whom they perceive to be Gods. Thus they condemn their fate by themselves (Macmullen and Lane, 199). 8. Didache or Teaching of the Twelve Apostles is a Christian document. It compiled old pieces of former generation. It is about morality of Christian behaviour during prayer, baptism and eucharist and respect towards local ministry. (Chadwick, 84) It is about the emerging church. It gives correct procedure of baptism. It though that Eucharistic president should do priestly functions. The primitive church was becoming free of the Synagogue and relied on authorities not following traditional laws. In the roots of Christianity there lay inherent tension between Jesus been deprived of supreme authority and immediacy of the Holy Spirit. The Didache attempted to solve this tension and for this it played an important role. (Chadwick, 85-88) 9. Marcion was a shipmaster from Pontus. He did not support the Gnostic ideas of a certain Cerdo. He was disturbed by the evil in the world created by God. He said that existence of scorpions and other insects signified some lack of goodness in the Maker. (Chadwick, 89) Marcion saw that the old God severely punished for trivial matters to those who did not follow Mosaic law. He deduced that creator of law was inferior to God who created goodness. He allowed only celibates, eunuchs and widows in Marcionite baptism. This idea produced martyrs. He said that body of Jesus is an illusion and it does not exist in reality. (Chadwick, 89-90) Marcion compiled in a book the contradiction between the new and old covenants. The title of the book is Antitheses and it is a Gnostic thesis. He had negative approach towards the Old Testament. (Chadwick, 91-92) Worksheet#7 1. Treatise on the Resurrection is a letter on philosophy from an unknown Gnostic teacher to Rheginos who was a non-Gnostic Christian. It talks about death and resurrection of both Jesus and other human beings. It says that resurrection will take place but not as revivification of the body. The spirit is eternal and not the body. Resurrection occurs for those who can deny their flesh. According to proto-orthodox beliefs, the body is resurrected after death which is totally falsified by the letter. The Saviour rejected the world which is perishable. He raised himself after death after getting transformed into an imperishable Aeon. Mankind is taken to heaven by the Saviour and this spiritual resurrection. This world is an illusion as everything is transitory. Resurrection is firm and is a transition into newness. He who knows that he will die one day must consider himself as risen. (ATNT, 182-184) 2. The Gnostic movement took place in the middle years of the second century by teachers from Alexandria to spread Christian intellectuality to Italy, Rome, Asia Minor and in Rhone Valley. They were held in high regards even by their opponents. Among the pioneers were Basilides, Valentinus and Heracleon. Christian Platonism is largely influenced by this movement. Justin Martyr and Iranaeus presented the origins of Gnosticism to Simon Magus. Simon had female companion namely Helen of Troy and as such his system was combination of many traditions. Simon remained a teacher for a long time among the Samaritans. Simon’s teachings were carried forward by his disciple Menander and then by Saturninus. Both of them believed in Supreme God and angels. Menander believed himself as Christ and a generation later Saturninus tried to interpret the mission of Christ. He believed that Christ came to free mankind from the evil clutches of seven angels and one of them was Yahweh who created the Universe. Earlier there were attempts to combine Jewish scriptures with speculations about Jesus Christ. The Gnostics gave deeper knowledge of Christian faith and was subject to criticisms. Jesus made judgments based on real life events rather than on abstract level. The Gnostics probed questions like our origin before we came into this world. They did not follow any single religion. All the Gnostics shared common view of God and of human salvation. They referred the divine world as the first person “I”. the Gnostics claimed that they held the secret knowledge of zodiac and the stars. The Gnostics leaders were both men and women and each sect had their own ceremonies. Although they vehemently claimed themselved as Christians, their perspective of the Scriptures varied from that of the great church. (Frend, 195-200) 3. The religious environment of Alexandria was one major reason for the spread of Gnosticism. The Greeks with their aspirations of salvation also contributed to the success. Gnosticism was highly influenced by Jewish thought, both Hellenistic and Palestinian. It was the successful manifestation of Jewish culture and Christianity was largely the heir of this culture. Yahweh became the god of the universe and merely that of the Israelites. Jewish Gnosticism associated Jesus with the Great Illuminator. The name of Christ became the focus of many religions. Gnostic flourished under the influence of the Christian movement. (Frend, 201-205). 4. Basilides – He was one of the pioneers of Gnostic movement. He composed twenty-four books of exegesis on Scripture. His works encompassed theology, morals and mysticism. He also preached about God and his creation, the sins of Christ, ethics of martyrdom, marriage and celibacy, and reincarnation. He took sources from both Jewish and pagan religions. He demeaned Yahweh as an aggressive deity and the Jewish for following him. Although Basilides was a Jewish in his attitudes, still he hated Judaism as he knew them. (Frend, 205) Valentinus – He was younger contemporary of Basilides and he faced exaggeration and misunderstanding. He viewed God as an unknowable Being who has origin in the Primal Cause. He taught about Word and Life, Man and Church. Thirty aeons were produced and Wisdom was the last of them. Jesus was sent to Wisdom. Valentines moved towards Gentile concepts of reality. He took his ideas from Silvanus who taught about wisdom and education. (Frend, 207-208) 5. Ptolemy was a disciple of Valentinus. He wrote a letter to his friend Flora about the relationship between the two Testaments. Law was not adequate as it was not created by the perfect God. God’s laws were the Ten Commandments. Revengeful attitude was abolished by the Saviour. The Old Testament was created by a distant image of Father who was the creator of the imperfect universe. Ptolemy saw Judaism as preparation for Christianity. Jewish customs were not always wrong and fasting could be observed if done reasonably. The Gnostics focused on the spiritual enlightenment by Christ. (Frend, 208-209) 6. Heracleon wrote that the spiritual beings viewed the Saviour as the symbol of their restoration to the Father. The Gnostics brought progression to religion, from ignorance to knowledge. He sees humanity moving towards full spiritual revelation through Christ. Heracleon wrote that true Christianity means "rational service" towards God. Gnosticism is a religion of joy and conquered the fear of grave. The world is viewed as a prison and with knowledge, the soul can return to the divine world. Gnostic salvation was not for everyone. Gnosticism attempted to bring harmony between Jewish and Platonic ideas. The Gnostics influenced the early mystical traditions of the Christians. (Frend, 211-212) 7. Marcion and his followers were opponents of the Christian church. He did not follow the laws of Christianity. He was severely criticized by the Greek and Latin theologists. Even after his death, for a century he was criticized by various individuals. (Frend, 212) Marcion believed that father of Christ was Unknown God of Act. He came to this conclusion by studying the Scriptures. He questioned the existence of Adam. He said that Creator made earthly promises while Christ was heavenly. He said that Jesus represented grace as opposed to legal justice. Christ was sent to liberate the souls but he himself was just a body with no passion. Marcion preached that the Bible could not be understood in symbolic manner. There was no basis of agreements or disagreements except only by the Scriptures. The New Testament did not agree in many ways with the Old Testament and thus there was shortage of the true teachings of Christ. He rejected the Christian idea that God needs to be feared and man will not be able to resist temptation unless threatened with punishment. He said that by worshipping an unknown God made Christianity a mysterious religion with no past. (Frend, 213-216) 8. The progress of Christianity from Lyons to the Euphrates was a threat to the Pagans. This resulted in persecutions in the empire. The Christians faced various degrees of torture like "roastings, impalings, and beheadings" between the years 195 and 212. To escape persecution the Christians took shelter with the Jews and this resulted in the arrest of the future bishop Asclepiades. The reason behind these persecutions was that many confessors became baptized converts. Perpetua and Felicitas of Carthage who was executed in 203 were such examples. Influential bishops were not harmed like Demetrius of Alexandria. Emperor Severus started the process of discouraging conversions. (Frend, 293-294) 9. Apologists movement was a contemporary of Gnosticism and Marcionism. The Apologists were formed to evolve a Gentile Christianity in relation to old Israel, Greek philosophy and Roman authorities. As there was rise of Jewish hostility and pagan persecutions, they strived to defend their orthodox position. They used “open letters” and wrote them to emperors and pagan magistrates. They claimed that they did not do idol worship and was not associated with any illegal societies. They said that their religion originated much before Christ came. That is why they tried to disprove that Christ was God of Creation. They played a huge role in the transition from the Jewish to Gentile Christianity. (Frend, 234) Quadratus – He wrote an open letter to Emperor Hadrian stating the miracles of Jesus as proof of Saviour. Later on Alexandria made the Christian apology to the pagans and the Jews. (Frend, 235) Aristides – He favored the Jews in dividing mankind into races as required by religion. He dismissed paganism. They worshipped angels and not God. Fasting was merely a ritual for him and his followers. (Frend, 235-236) Letter to Diognetus - This letter contained attack on paganism and. The pagans worshipped God’s creation. The letter claimed that only Christianity was the messenger between human and God. The letter claimed that Jesus came late as he wanted to test humanity that they had the ability to save themselves, but his blessings were always on humanity. (Frend, 236-237) 10. Justin Martyr converted from Platonism to Christianity but did not understand the incompatibilities between the two and this he was not always convincing. His role was nevertheless important as he tried to evaluate the role of philosophy in Christian teaching. He denied that Christians were involved in “cannibalism and incest”. All that was good in the Old Testament was of Christian origin. Whatever similarities were there between the pagans and the Christians were due to the devil. Justin also severely criticized the Gnostics and the Marcionites. He said that Christ would come suddenly to reunite the souls with the bodies that perished by death. (Frend, 237-239) 11. Melito – He was younger contemporary of Justin. He argued with the Jews but accepted to tolerate the common interest between Christian philosophy and the Jews. He accepted Augustus monarchy as the best form of government. He was the leader of the monotheist group in Sardis. He said that Christ saved humanity. He criticised the Israelites for the crucifixion of Christ. Christian anti-Semitism originated in his time. (Frend, 240-241) Athenagoras - He openly protested all charges against the Christians. He said that there was harmony between Greek philosophy and the Christians. He said that there was logical proof behind God’s existence. He appreciated slavery and he himself was a slave owner. He recognized Christianity as a positive force in the society and he was loyal to the emperors. (Frend, 241-242) Hegesippus – He was a converted Patestinian Jew and he was the first to collect all historical documents regarding the church. He drew up a list of Episcopal successions to trace the foundation of Christianity. (frend, 243) 12. Theophilus of Antioch – Antioch was influenced by the Jewish and held contempt or philosophy. Theophilus of Antioch was in contrast with the Greek apologists and his outlook was similar to that of Tatian. He wrote letter to the pagan Autolycus. The form of the letter was Christian but the content was Hellenistic-Jewish and was influenced by Judaism. He hated paganism. Greek literature had no base and Plato was ridiculed. All Greek writers were inferior to the Hebrew prophets. Antioch developed its own Christiology and biblical exegesis which was explained eighty years later by Paul of Samosata and then was criticized by the opponents especially the Alexandrians as Jewish. (Frend, 252) Clement of Alexandria – The Christians wanted to explore higher knowledge provoking chagrin from the orthodox. Clement criticized orthodoxy. At Alexandria he met a Christian named Pantaenus who once used to teach Stoicism. He protested when the ascetics denounced marriages. Marriage between two wise people is necessary to make the women feel that there should be beauty in her character and not in her appearance and to make men learn that women are not to be treated as sexual objects. He said that the gospel held both Old Testament laws and philosophy. (Chadwick, 124,127) 13. Irenaeus was a major link between the churches of his own time with the heroic age of the past. He was the author of the inhuman persecutions of the Christians. There was controversy between Rome and Asia Minor regarding Easter date and this made him write a letter to Pope Victor to be tolerant of diversity. (Chadwick, 100) Iraneus was against Gnosticism. Gnosticism took a negative view of the Creator of the material world. He refused to see evil in any matter. He believed that wrong use of free choice corrupted the women. He said that human body or soul cannot be saved if the Redeemer does not make them his own. Gnostics explained that everything is created from a Supreme Being and this was opposed by Iraneus. (Chadwick, 101-102) Iraneus emphasised that the church is the one faith that is believed all over the world. Only through God can God be known. He said that one must reject the church as the soul is where the church is. Regarding the church, the old and new Testaments have compatible views. (Chadwick, 104) 14. The Montanist movement was a threat to Christian unity. They spoke of the millennium when people abandoned home and family to settle in the countryside. Death and martyrdom were foretold. They tolerated persecutions by orthodox Christians. They believed that Spirit was in the church. They welcomed persecution as it signified the approaching end. Women like Deborah and Huldah played a role in prophecy. They organized themselves as a church as opposed to their orthodox rivals. The movement said that Christianity world has prophetic outlook in the rural population. It influenced the Latin churches of Rome and North Africa (Frend, 253-256). Worksheet#8 1. Severan dynasty was the ruler of the Roman world at a time when Christians were going through a radical change. Christians had to define their teachings in both Greek and Latin parts of the Mediterranean. Many people began to convert and this ushered the era of the Severans. Septimius Severus won the empire after fighting a war. His marriage to Julia Domna who was the daughter of a prince-priest paved the way for his rule for forty years. There people of all professions were treated as equal. Severus took the “offensive-defensive” strategy to crush the Caledonians. His successor Dio disliked the Jews but never mentioned the Christians. The empire was rules by conservative administrators. Any un-Roman attitudes in religion were punished. The urban civilization took a progressive path. Christians were not favorable to the dynasty but appreciated the material prosperity of the Roman world. The Severans collected experiences from past centuries in regard to architecture and the knowledge of the physical universe. (Frend, 272-273) 2. Religious syncretism was favored by the imperial house. Christians could have claimed a place in this system. There was a baseless gossip by Lampridius that Alexander Severus set up shrine for Abraham, Orpheus and Christ. These stories gave a picture of those times. Alexander spread tolerance among the Jews and the Christians. Apolloneus attempted to revive the declining cults. He requested the priests to ban sacrifice of animals to god. Apollneus also drew attention towards merchants who cornered the markets and made people pf towns to starve. He was a vegetarian and did not get married. He spoke with authority of a lawyer and he saw the decline of paganism. Philostratus according to the needs of the religions of his time decided that romance could reform paganism. There was no proof that he was anti-Christian. The most important source of divine wisdom was the Brahmins in distant India. (Frend, 275-276) 3. Mithraism was the Persian religion that maintained a long between the emperor and the slave, and the commercial centers to frontier garrisons. It became the most important cult in the Mediterranean world between the years 170 and 240. It followed the religious aspirations of Philostratus. It “dramatized the eternal battle between good and evil, and it combined mystery and awesome ceremonial with a sense of comradeship and achievement”. It promised that anyone who follows disciple can earn salvation. Mithras was worshipped as the Unconquered one. He revealed the way of lead a righteous life. His associates in Spain were Mercury and Oceanus. His worshippers enable the believers to move towards salvation after crossing the seven spheres that surrounded the earth. Mithras and the Sun God ate the sacred meal. Those who accepted his services underwent initiation and were sworn to secrecy. (Frend, 276-277) 4. The prosperity of Gnosticism in the period of religious syncretism was the symbol of the mixture of religious beliefs. There are pictures by Tertullian of growth and decline of the sects and also of women teachers. The Gnostics did not ask for a simple faith. For them, religion was a road to discovery. There was power, serenity, and beauty of the Gnostic sect. The Gnostic element is subtly portrayed through portraits. They depict the serpent as teacher curled around a tree and not tempting Eve with the forbidden fruit. There are two other frescoes that depict the return of Ulysses to Ithaca, and Ulysses and Penelope with her suitors. (Frend, 279-280) 5. The stories of creation in Genesis gave rise to speculations but to accept them they needed to have roots in tradition. Orthodox interpretation of the Genesis was more convincing than the Gnosticism. Although Clement did not deny some truth of the Gnostics, he was repelled by the Gnostic sectarianisms. He wanted to keep the Gnosticism in the framework of the church. Orthodoxy had a momentum of its own and responded to the intellectual challenges of the times. Orthodoxy gained success in the world. Ignatius used the term “universal” or “catholic” church. (Frend, 282-283) 6. Alexandria became a center for the Christian mission in c.180. The city had contact with Pondicherry where fine Roman tables were found. Here the Christians used the Gospel of Matthew. Pantaenus left Alexandria after hading over the leadership of catechetical school to Clement. Clement wanted to convert the community members into educated Alexandrian Greeks. (Frend, 286) 7. The Latin account of the Scillitan Martyrs is the oldest Christian document found in North Africa. It narrates the story of twelve of twelve Christians in Carthage in 180 C.E. under the reign of Saturninus. The documents show the resolutions of the prisoners to refuse to agree to any compromise and also the sincere attempts of the magistrate to make them see the folly of their ways. The prisoners were told to worship the emperor as the divine spirit. On refusal the prisoners were sentenced to death and were beheaded. (Ehrman, 41) Perpetua was a young Roman matron who along with her female slave Felicitas were imprisoned and executed. Perpetua kept a diary in prison to describe her concluding story. The execution took place in Carthage in 202-203 C.E. under the reign of Emperor Severus. Perptua had to let go of her infant child. She refused to relent even though her non-Christian father begged her. She twice dreamt of her dead brother. In her night visions she predicts her fate and this portrays her understanding of the world and her internal struggles. (Ehrman, 42-43) 8. The argument or debate between Octavius and Caeciluis centered on the controversy between polytheism (supported by the latter) and monotheism (favored by the former). While Caecilius attributed all the existence and glories of Rome to its old and traditional practices of religion and practice of paganism and reveals unfathomable loyalty to the traditional gods of Rome. He states that the beliefs of the Christians are not proven and their conduct in life is unsocial. Octavius argues in favor of monotheism on grounds of the irrelevance of paganism to the prosperity of Rome, and the barbarous beginning of the gods. Even polytheism is dangerous and caused shame and degradation or human lives. The spirits of the human beings are deceived as they worshipped demons. He talks of the merits of Christian beliefs and demands its truth to be accepted. He says, “we do not preach great things, but we live them” and claims that the possessions of the Romans comprise of loot in the temples, ruin of the cities and destruction of gods and priests (Frend, 292). Finally Caeciluis is convinced and becomes a Christian. 9. The level of official persecution between 195 to 212 was extensive. There were “roastings, impalings and beheadings” of Christians during 203. The first flow of persecution occurred under Maecius Laetus of Egypt and the second wave occurred during T.C. Subatianus Aquila between 206 and 210. Women had to lose lives for blasphemy. This massive scale of persecutions resulted from an alarm which prevailed amongst the pagans during this time. Most of the confessors were recent converts or catechumens (Frend, 293-94). 10. Osrhoene was a place where the religion of Christianity was popularized since long and has been progressing steadily though slowly. The merchant class now carried this religion far across the seas by talking of Christianity. The religion began to be favored now by the ruling class like King Abgar VIII the Great. A Christian religious leader named Bardesanes, a multi talented emerged during this time. In Dura-Europos, the rise of Christianity was connected with the end of Darkness and Fate which encompassed people believing in astrology and horoscopes. Christ brought about an assurance that Christ will protect all form Satan (Frend, 297). 11. Celsus – He was a Greek observer and was a contemporary of Irenaeus. He was alarmed by the rapid growth of Christianity. He was sympathetic towards the Platonists. His book Alethes logos was a true doctrine of authentic tradition. (Chadwick, 111) Perpetua – Perpetua was a lady of good family. The deacons of the local churches cared for her and her fellow martyrs. In a vision, she saw happy reconciliation between bishop Optatus and his presbyter Aspasius. (Chadwick, 117) Tertullian – One Christian soldier was imprisoned because it was believed that he gave the bad name to the religion. Tertullian defended the soldier by saying that the Scripture in not the only authority to be called upon. He mentioned about old traditions from the apostolic beginnings of the church. (Chadwick, 119) Minucius Felix – He is a North African Christian who was less aggressive than Tertullian. He defended his faith Octavius by a Latin composition. It is a dialogue between Octavius and a pagan Caecilius. (Chadwick, 122) Clement of Alexandria – He traveled to different places to sit at the feet of Christian teachers before settling in Alexandria. Here he met a Christian named Pantaenus who once used to teach Stoicism. (Chadwick, 124) Julius Africanus – He was a learned Christian and a rare polymath. He wrote on various matters like military, history, magic, Christianity and architecture. He had careers in army, medicine and law. He knew relatives of Jesus from Nazareth region and he knew some Hebrew. (Chadwick, 130) Hippolytus – In ancient times he was the last Christian who wrote in Greek. He was exiled to Sardinia where he toiled as mine laborers under lethal conditions. In the name of martyrs his name is found. (Chadwick, 132) Worksheet#9 1. Julius Maximinus came after the fall of Severus. Maximin blamed the Christians for the failure. Under the governor Serenianus terrible persecution took place as churches were burned down and the Christians were forced to flee. Then a strange thing took place when a woman in Cappadocia declared that she could cause earthquakes. Here many Christians owned buildings. Between the years 238 and 250, major changes took places in the religious world of the Mediterranean. Personal religions became dominant claiming universal faith. There was a major transformation in the Christianity’s fortunes. The apostles of Christ went to all nations to teach. This was made easy by Augustus when he united many kingdoms into one empire. He saw Christianity as the solvent of pagan cultures. Cities and nations and their laws began to follow the Christian worshippers. (Frend, 309-310)The decline of cities made people turn to Christianity. The local aristocrats and magistrates were loyal supporters of God and they maintained temples. The Roman church was flourishing. (Frend, 309-313) 2. The decline of cities made people turn to Christianity. The local aristocrats and magistrates were loyal supporters of God and they maintained temples. The sacrifices for the temples depended on them. The knowledge of hieroglyphics was fading and so were the old national religions. Christianity replaced them. People began converting to Christianity when they were convinced that it was a superior religion. (Frend, 311-312) Origen wrote how some bishops despised the waifs of the church who worshipped God and Christ as if they were sinning. There was a widening gap between the cleric and the laity, the educated and the uneducated. He wrote that women were more interested in household works than worships. Many bishops were ready to take up lucrative secular work in addition to their clerical jobs. (Frend, 322) Christianity was also progressing in the West but not as spectacular as in the East. By c.245, there were ninety bishops in North Africa and a discipline was maintained in an organised manner. In Rome, congregation was multiplying with 155 clergy of all grades and 1500 widows and aggrieved persons as followers of the church. The churches in Rome and in central Italy were all flourishing. (Frend, 313) 3. Mani could make accurate statements on Zoroastrianism and Buddhism. He strived for worldwide appeal to become successful. Mani grew up in a self-supporting community for whom meals were holy events. He has two religious conversions at the age of twelve and at the age of twenty-four. His "companion" is his "guardian angel". He studied Buddhism in India. He did not believe in purity of body and as such thought cleansing oneself was a way of making water dirty because body will face destruction one day. He rigidly maintained religious matters and was a vegetarian and always washed hid food before eating. Mani insisted that to maintain a religious life, one cannot worry about transitory things. He believed in purity of the soul and supported the Gnosis theory of freeing the soul of death and destruction. He defined Gnosis as knowledge of light and darkness. Mani was a preacher and a prophet. Mani accepted that the knowledge of salvation was given by teachers like Plato, Moses, Buddha, Jesus and Paul. He believed that different religions can be combined to form a single system which would have universal validity. Manicheism opposed the orthodox Christianity. (Frend, 314-318) 4. Rome prospered for a thousand years under the protection of God. All unrighteous mean who opposed the church could not succeed. But after the thousandth year persecution became worldwide. Local people were oppressed and the Christians were held responsible for the rebellion. Alexandria faced most trouble as Christians were tortured, burned and dragged to churches for sacrifice. Philip became the first Christian emperor in the fourth century. Decius ran persecution because of his enmity towards Philip. Decius killed prominent Christians and simple activists. (Frend, 318-321) 5. Carthage controlled the bishops of North Africa. The bishops of Carthage had majesty, authority, and power. Carthage recovered rapidly after the return of Cyprian from his exile. He said that none should be excluded from penance. The lapsed clergy cannot return to their orders and those who partially lapsed would be punished accordingly. Those who were forceful sacrificed to the pagan idols were allowed to return to their orders. Only Cyprian and the clergy can make decisions. Although he faced opposition, most people accepted the situation and were promoted. (Frend, 323) 6. Initially, Valerian was supporter of Christianity. He did not use the same policy of Decius towards the Christians. He held rival religious confederations as each year passed whose leaders reflected opinions better than the traditional authorities. They could command obedience. Valerian was defeated and captured by the Persians in Rome in July 260. (Frend, 324-325) 7. More than one instance in the Macmullen and Lane text suggests that the age was filled with an air of dreams, magic, astrology and superstition. An example of superstition can be seen in the notion that only those people chosen by Isis (the Egyptian Goddess) could visit their holiest sanctuary (Macmullen and Lane, 47). This message was supposed to be sent by visionary dreams. Their holy festivals comprise of slaughtering animals and wrapping their victims in silk and linen. Festivities comprised largely of superstitions and magic and the religions which were well accepted comprised of shrines and were nurtured by groups. (Macmullen and Lane, 1) Magic spells were written on papyrus belonging to Egypt only (Macmullen and Lane, 9). One of the festivities comprised of bathing on specific dates. Couples belonging to both genders bathed together in the same water and the character of the young girl was put to test as she treated her admirers badly and did not give in. The power of sorcery was implemented (Macmullen and Lane, 5) 8. The Apostolic Tradition of Hippolytus gives description of duties and ordination of the leaders of the church. It also describes the liturgical practices of the Christians. (Ehrman, 353) For baptism, men used to undress and women used to loosen their hair and removed all ornaments of gold. They were then given holy oil to renounce the power of Satan. As they are naked in the water, they confess faith and answers several questions regarding their faith in God, Christ and Holy church. They have to say “I believe” as reply to the questions. The presbyter then anoints them with thanksgiving oil. After being baptized they are allowed to dry themselves and wear their clothes. (Ehrman, 355) The catechumens remain as hearer for three years. His character is counted more than his work. After getting instructed by the teacher they pray by themselves. Women pray in separate part of the church. The believers can salute but only between the same gender. The women need to cover their heads with opaque cloth. After the prayers the instructor will place his hand on their heads to say prayers and will then dismiss them. (Ehrman, 354) 9. Origen – He was born in 184 and he was a prolific producer. He wrote huge quantity of texts and he was helped by a wealthy patron named Ambrosius who gave him shorthand writers. He interpreted the Scriptures for his generation. He ignored criticisms from the pagans. He was a popular preacher. In Hexalpa he brought together Greek versions of the Hebrew Bible, including a transliteration of Hebrew in Greek. He believed that the reputation of Moses was damaged by those who refused allegory. In his time churches became hungry for financial success. At 18, he was entrusted by the school of catechumens by Demetrius. He faced problems because of the simplicity among the church members. He believed that god can make Satan to repent. In youth he castrated himself to catechize women. He worked on the inner meaning of Biblical text. Fire not just destroys but purifies too. He did not have regard for sexuality although for married partners it was not a sin. Christ was a human like us. But Origen agreed that Christ did not need to evacuate body waste or experience erotic urges. (Chadwick, 135-140) 10. Cyprian of Carthage – Cyprian through his letters gave the picture of the internal problems of the church at a time when Roman Empire was disintegrating. There were civil wars between the legitimate and the nonlegitimate emperors. Cyprian was a master of Latin rhetoric. The cruelties of contemporary society compelled him to convert from polytheism and idolatry to Christianity. He owned lands and estates and spent money on others. He also expected obedience from those he benefited with his money. He defended infant baptism, renunciation of the devil and nudity during baptism. He disapproved bribery especially for false papers showing that predecessors had demonic powers. Cyprian was an object of mob hatred and so he went away to a hiding place so that the people of his city did not fall in trouble. (Chadwick, 145-151) 11. Clement of Alexandria – The Christians wanted to explore higher knowledge provoking chagrin from the orthodox. Clement criticized orthodoxy. At Alexandria, he met a Christian named Pantaenus who once used to teach Stoicism. He protested when the ascetics denounced marriages. Marriage between two wise people is necessary to make the women feel that there should be beauty in her character and not in her appearance and to make men learn that women are not to be treated as sexual objects. He said that the gospel held both Old Testament laws and philosophy. (Chadwick, 124,127) Read More