Political Development and Stability in the Middle East - Assignment Example

MIDDLE EAST According to many observers, one of the key challenges to political development and stability in the MiddleEast, is the regions so-called "democracy deficit”. What is the "democracy deficit" that plagues the Middle East? Why has this condition historically affected the region? What accounts for its continued persistence? Throughout history, a striking characteristic of the Middle East is a lack of democracy. However, parliaments exist in many Arab countries that continue struggling and suffering under authoritarian monarchies. As a result, the Middle East is considered “democracy deficit”, a condition resulting from lack of mechanisms to ensure the government is responsible and responsive to its people1. The states constituting the Middle East originated from the former Ottoman Empire, but only Israel, Lebanon, and Turkey continue to enjoy democratic space in the region. In a situation where a region is “democracy deficit”, governments curtail the freedoms of its people, and it is surprising authoritarianism continues after the Arab spring. Many states in the region enjoy ranging levels of freedom and no state, except Israel is considered free. Democracy deficit is also characterized by lack of free and fair elections2. Middle East countries, such as Egypt and Syria organized elections under Nasser and Hafez respectively according to democratic requirements. However, these elections were never free and fair. As a result, many states denied their citizens civil rights and liberties common in democratic societies3. This extends to Israel and Turkey where the states curtail freedom of expression and exercise of human rights. Israel continues to rule over Palestinians, who they continue to deny citizenship and voice in administration. Moreover, political parties are instruments of democratic rule, but cannot criticize the government or promote ideologies. In Turkey, freedom of expression is cutback, as witnessed by frequent arrest and jailing of journalists. Even though, other liberal democracies are seldom perfect, the Middle East suffers a “democracy deficit”. In essence, democratic institutions exist to serve the people, but the people lack the rights and freedoms to determine how they are governed. The concept of “democracy deficit” in the Middle East has political and historical origins. Historically, this region was crafted following the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, and after the First World War. Through British and French mandates, Turkey was granted Independence followed by Iraq, Lebanon, Syria, and Transjordan in the inter war period. Later, Palestine and Israel were liberated and the Middle East was created from a region formerly administered from Istanbul, the Ottoman Empire’s main city. Liberation was rewarding, but many problems in the Middle East are underpinned to historical events following their creation. The newly Independent states in the Middle East were characterized by an inherent weakness because they were a created from a vast region only distinguished by demarcations that separated one state from the other. The notion of the state was ambiguous to newly formed governments in the Middle East, and many governments exploited the trappings of democracy to exploit an apathetic and submissive populace4. Today, the notion of nation-state remains alien in the Middle East because it lacks any historical antecedent in Islam’s political culture5. Due to vulnerability, Middle East leaders fused religion with the state and created an Islamic political culture devoid of any territorial connotation6. Consequently, identification of the state is based on people and not territory. Through this, the political vocabulary of the Arab state continues to evade Western definitions of the state, an indication of “democracy deficit” because religion usurps the rights and freedoms of people to question Islamic rule. Moreover, Middle East countries almost overcame the inherent weaknesses and vulnerabilities when they formed the Pan Arab Movement. This movement almost led to a backlash after newly created states remained fragmented at the whims of foreign powers, but quickly fragmented following leadership wrangles between Middle East leaders about the leader of the movement. Moreover, Israeli Independence led to divisions among leaders because many Middle East leaders were not prepared to engage Israel in war in fear of an all-Arab war. Even though, democracy deficit in the Middle East has political and historical origins, many reasons explain why this deficit persists today. Firstly, lack of a cohesive and inclusive democratic system7. At Independence Britain and France violated requirements of the League of Nations and established weak states to sustain their interests in the Middle East. Consequently, the democratic system comprises an unpopular political system. With strong affiliation to the state, citizens approach its policies with suspicion and mistrust8. This is coupled by lack of democratic experience because of an alien nation-state. These reasons led to creation of an autocratic state, but colossal rents collected from vast oil deposits sustained them9. These leaders had resources to buy support from the military to maintain power and influence over their electorate. Apart from domestic sources of support, Middle East countries benefited from instability in the international system during the Cold War. The regimes not only relied on either America or Soviet Union for economic support, but also political support in case of domestic unrest10. With considerable growth of the Islamist parties following the end of Cold War, America face a new political threat today, which continues to curtail its geopolitical interests, especially in the Middle East. 2. What are the three most important effects of the Shia-Sunni divide on regional stability and security in the Middle East? Make sure to explain your answer. Historically, Prophet Mohammad united Arab tribes under Islam and instigated the spread of Islam across the Middle East and beyond11. However, his death was the end of unity amongst Arab tribes due to leadership wrangles during his succession. This occurred because Muhammad did not have a son, and his four daughters could not fill his position. His death signaled stream of Arabic leaders who ruled Arab communities for many centuries. However, expansion of Islam across the Middle East and North Africa was realized under caliph Umar, and his conquest was aided by many factors that characterized people of the Middle East, such as hospitality due to shared religious origins12. The expansion of Islam was characterized by many setbacks that began with succession of caliph Ummah, culminating to a split of the Muslim World13. His succession was resolved through a civil war where supports of Muhammad’s son-in-law Ali rivaled other Arab communities who denounced his rule. Ali’s supporters (Shia) believed caliphs were direct descendants of Muhammad while other communities believed it was unnecessary (Sunni)14. This explains the Shia-Sunni divide persistent today and a source of regional conflict and instability in the Middle East. This division threatened the expansion and domination of Islam, as Shia’s and Sunni’s in the Middle East separated leading to centuries of conflict and oppression. The composition of Shia and Sunni Muslims in Middle East varies with Shia’ dominating Iran and Iraq while the Sunni control Egypt, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, and Qatar. Even though Sunnis are the majority, Shia resurgence during Islamic Revolution and institution of Khomeini worsened tensions between Muslims. Moreover, American invasion of Iraq freed Shia’s from Sunni oppression and instituted a Shia regime15. This regime has held power from the time of American invasion of Iraq straining relationships with Sunnis who continue living in oppression. Consequently, the establishment of Shia government in Iraq after American invasion in 2003 is witnessing current problems in the Middle East leading to insecurity and instability in the region. Firstly, the Sunni-Shia divide is supporting the rise and sustenance of militant groups in the Middle East16. Following America’s invasion of Iraq and institution of a Shia regime, a backlash occurred when Sunni Muslims revolted against the regime. For instance, a Sunni militant group, Salafi under the leadership of Abu Musab al-Zarqawi organized murderous terror preempted attacks on Shia living in Iraq. Moreover, global terrorist groups like Al Qaeda are exploiting tension between Sunnis and Shia’s to facilitate terrorist activities in the Middle East and across the world17. The struggle for political domination continues between Islamist parties on one side, and America and its allies on the other. Currently, the Arab spring is purported to have worsened the Middle East situation because of increased insecurity in new regimes and regimes where leaders cling to power18. For instance, ISIS is expanding its territories in Iraq that was historically disputed between Sunni and Shias. This movement is seeking refuge in Sunni held parts of Iraq and recruiting more Sunnis in preparation for a war against America. Secondly, the Sunni-Shia divide has not only led to increased militant activities, it has created a new phenomenon of sectarianism in the Middle East. Rivaling Muslims are employing militant groups to address their grievances leading to atrocities19. For example, sectarian bloodshed was experience between 2004 and 2007 after American invasion of Iraq. Both Sunnis and Shia engaged in mutual killings where Shia government in Iraq oppressed the minority Sunni while Sunnis targeted Shia’s in Iraq20. The current conflict in Syria is an example of volatile relationship between the two Muslim groups. Iran and Hezbollah side with Assad in Iraq while Sunnis support opposition and now ISIS expanding in Iraq. Finally, regional instability and insecurity is affecting the entire global system and international actors are watching with glee waiting for opportunities to further their interests in this volatile region. The conflict fanned by Sunni-Shia divide is attracting external attention, especially when the region needs to consolidate. Foreign powers are the reasons for the current problems experienced in the region and their presence in the region is a sinister motive21. Foreign powers are known to worsen conflicts in various regions of the world to satisfy their interests, and the Sunni-Shia divide is a common weakness they continue exploiting in the Middle East. Currently, the conflict in Syria where Citizens marched to oust Assad has turned into a bloody war pitting Sunnis and Shias22. America is already intervening and airstrikes rocked many parts of Syria in the final quarter of this year. From the events in the Middle East, it is apparent the end of the Cold War instigated the rise of new combatants in the global system. The Islamist parties are out to regain political control of the world, and continue exploiting political and historical events to advance their interests. Even though democracy is widespread in the world, many parts of the Muslim world do not embrace it fully leading to conflicts causing insecurity and instability. Bibliography Cole, Juan. 2006. “A “Shi’ite Crescent”? The regional impact of the Iraq War.” Current History 105.687: 20-26. Bellin, Eva. 2004. “The Robustness of Authoritarianism in the Middle East: A Comparative Perspective.” Comparative Politics 36.2: 139-157. Anderson, Lisa. 1991. “Absolutism and the resilience of monarchy in the Middle East.” Political Science Quarterly 106.1: 1-15. Herb, Michael. 2004. “Princes and Parliaments in the Arab World.” The Middle East Journal. 58.3: 367-384. Ross, Michael L. 2001. “Does Oil Hinder Democracy?” World Politics 53.3: 325-361. Fish M. Steven. 2002. “Islam and Authoritarianism.” World Politics 55: 4-37. Kramer, Martin. 1993. “Arab Nationalism: Mistaken Identity.” Daedalus 122.3: 171-206 Barnett, Michael N. Barnett. “Sovereignty, Nationalism, and Regional Order in the Arab States System.” International Organization 49.3: 479-510. Read More