International Relations - Assignment Example

1) International Relations The theory of modernization has been postulated to account for the changes and significant transformations that have taken place in society and economy and how these variables have led to the growth of certain societies. It seeks to examine the changes, the response to these changes and how societies have adapted to new technology and thought processes. The modernization theory established a close link between economic development and cultural changes that were first propounded by Antoine de Concordat (pg.16). It found an echo in the Communist Manifesto of Karl Marx and Engel’s. Adam Smith opposed this communist theory and instead advanced the capitalist model of development. The Cold War, after the end of World War II saw a resurgence of this theory, with the capitalist economies and communist blocs advancing the theory of modernization, but within the framework of their ideologies (pg.17). Modernization involves five stages since all countries are at one of the development stages, that comprise of traditional society, transitional stage, take-off, drive to maturity and high mass consumption.(Rostow.W.W.1960), In its earliest forms, modernization had brought together masses of people leading to the establishment of either a democracy, communism or fascism. Modernization has shown people that strong democratic institutions lead to socio-economic development and cultural changes, which in turn lead to individual freedom and gender equality- all of which create a society whose main objective is to ensure human emancipation. The rise in self-expression makes society people- centered, and leads to the concept of freedom of choice. Modernization theory has thus created conditions conducive to the humanistic transformation of society, which is its biggest asset. 2) AUTHORITARIAN Vs DEMOCRATIC GOVT. Economic development is the avowed goal of all societies and ideologies. The development of a nation and its place on the larger world stage is determined by the economic strength that the nations wield. This development can be promoted through democratic means as also by creating an authoritarian regime. The modern world swears by the advantages of a democratic set-up, but the success rates of economics thriving under authoritarian rule cannot be ignored. When we put the economies of South-east Asian nations under a scanner, what projects forth is a kaleidoscope of nations, governed democratically as well as by authoritarian regimes. While all democratic economies are performing extremely well, authoritarian nations too show a remarkable vibrant economic culture. India and Sri Lanka, two nations with a well-entrenched democratic set up, show consistent long-term growth, while nations like Pakistan have been found to progress admirably under the authoritarian rule of Ayub Khan in the 60’s, General Zia-ul-Haq in the 80’s and once again, under the dictatorship of General Musharraf beginning in 1999.(Mahmud, Waliuddin pg.1) The development agenda in a democracy is sustainable because it provides a peaceful and people-friendly road to changes in regime. Indian and Sri Lankan coalition governments in spite of their fragility, still give a semblance of continuity and predictability which are important road signs for economic development. Democratic regimes, by their basic populist character are more poor-inclusive, which makes them attractive to a greater proportion of their population. Growth in a democratic regime is delayed due to populist demands to keep taxes low as also the consensual method of decision making, which is time consuming. (Islam Nurul pg.5) Authoritarian regimes, in the early stages of economic development, show remarkable capacity to initiate and take forward the process of development. The propensity to mass produce makes these economies prosperous, but whether they can sustain such growth in the age of information technology is doubtful. China and Russia are two authoritarian regimes with successful economic growth, while Singapore, a semi-authoritarian regime, is one of the most development nations in the world. Democratic and authoritarian regimes, both present a good report-card of economic development, but while the happiness index in a democracy is higher, the same cannot be said of an authoritarian government. Discuss why the Buddhist and Hindu religions have usually been less actively involved in national politics than Islam or Catholicism. How has that changed in India in recent years? Both Buddhism and Hinduism are religions that have always preached and practiced the policy of tolerance, Ahimsa or non – violence and pacifism. According to their previous ideology everyone are brothers and sisters and as such should live in peace and harmony with each other. Such an attitude existed for centuries together but not any more. Both Buddhism and Hinduism existed in pockets all around the world and hence as time passed by various influences and experiences have brought about a change in attitude. One of the key factors responsible for bringing about this change was the Buddhist and Hindu phenomena which were reactive which began in the latter part of the nineteenth century. Due to colonial maladministration and discrimination against Buddhism, they began differentiating themselves from the rest of the group by instituting discriminatory educational and economic policies. The Tamils who did not favor such a proposition were forced to rise up against the state. During this stressful period, Sinhalese Buddhists had no other option but to resort to militarism. This paradox is difficult to explain because the most fundamental aspect referring to nationalistic ideology is that a good section of the people propagate Buddhism and the common belief is that people of other religions stay in Sri Lanka only because of Buddhist sufferance. While considering that Islam and Catholicism are always engaged in National politics, the Buddhist and Hindus are not far behind. Why is child prostitution detrimental to development? One of the burning issues today in our society is Child Prostitution which seems to be spreading at an alarming rate. It is an ancient global problem that has been prevalent for centuries together. Child Prostitution constitutes the exchange of sexual services for either money, food, shelter, drugs or other necessary commodities. Worldwide each year, an estimated 1 million children are forced into this profession for some sort of paltry compensation. ‘The the total could be as high as 10 million, including 300,000 in the United States alone.’ (Lancet, 2002) Child Prostitution comprises of children who are under 18 years of age who are forced into this business. ‘These children are exploited by local men, pedophiles, and foreign tourists and may have 5 to 10 clients per day, generating $5 billion per year.’ (Lancet, 2002) The twenty first century seems to resounding with the debacle of Child Prostitution and Child Pornography, but yet the same children are poverty stricken. These children become a sort of prey to the local goons or underground Mafia and find no way of escape. It has become a sort of Global Trade which is carried out well under cover. These children are usually from broken or abused homes who may have run away or thrown out of their houses which makes them easy victims of prostitution. Other children are initiated into prostitution through abduction, deceptive agreements between traffickers and parents. These children face a totally new lifestyle that revolves around violence and drugs with no means of escape. For all the above reasons, Child Prostitution is not only detrimental to the child but also acts as a stumbling block to the development of a country. Discuss some of the major accomplishments and failures of revolutionary governments. Any government that takes over the reins of a country by forcefully deposing an already existing government can be said to be a revolutionary government. For an elected government to be brutally overthrown and a subsequent regime to be accepted necessitates that the previous one had to be corrupt and the new one holds promise of a better future. The revolution in Cuba, led by Fidel Castro, now in its fifth decade is an interesting study of the high and low points of a revolutionary government. The Cuban revolution came about as a result of the dissatisfaction and anger of the lower classes with the centuries of privileged and selfish ways of the ruling elite, the wealthy landowners. It also sought to do away with the mining, agricultural, commercial and service companies established by the USA. The revolution in Cuba has been successful on the economic, social and political front. Cuba, post 1959, has a stronger economy inspite of the US blockades, embargoes and trade restrictions. The biggest achievement of the revolution in Cuba is the excellent social and health care network which was put in place. UNICEF reports point to the fact that Cuba spends the highest percentage of the GDP on health and its free health care system covers about 98 percent of the population. This is a even higher than the USA national average (Mercile,David). The literacy campaign in Cuba is unparalleled and offers free university education to all. Immediately after the Revolution, the government launched a massive campaign which taught 700,000 persons to read in a year. (Impact press, Feb - March 99). Education was given priority since it was an extension of the revolutionary machinery to ingrain their political philosophy, since “educated people will always be strong and free”. (Marti Jose’) The government has provided homes for all and there is zero-homelessness in Cuba when compared to the 760,000 homeless in USA. Its crime rate as well as drug abuse rate in also very low. Revolutionary governments have the tendency to smother free speech, thoughts and expression and this leads to decline in arts and literary activities. Inspite of strong economies, these governments tend to control the flow of currency and limit access to material goods. In Cuba too, we see the effects of these policies which make even purchase of clothing a rationed item. Revolutionary governments perform well on social scales but their inherent intolerance does not bode well for political freedom .The glaring disconnect between their avowed socialistic goals and tangible achievements are thus diluted. What are the major strengths and weaknesses of military governments? In a military form of government the power to govern lies totally with the military and the government comes to power generally through a coup-d’etat. A declaration is made which is called “proclamation” to make the change of power official. Military establishments make use of internal instability as the reason for abolishing civilian rule. Some countries like Pakistan welcomed military rule as the civil services and the government were absolutely corrupt. The military is an important institution of any country, but to give it rights to rule the land is not right as they are ill-equipped in matters of governance. This also leads to militarization and the undermining of civil society. The military is given prime importance and human development is neglected. Military regimes are characterized by human rights abuses. The economy also suffers as available resources are directed to the strengthening of the army. This type of government is generally led by a single leader hence it gives rise to personality cult. The elite class benefits from military rule. The elite few in the army live a life of luxury and send their children abroad for education, while the ordinary citizen faces economic hardships. The education system too is not given priority and medical facilities are appalling. The government reinforces its military rule with pervasive security apparatus which is tightly controlled by them. Ordinary citizens live a life subject to the arbitrary dictates of the military rulers. Pro democracy movements are dealt with firmly and political prisoners are left languishing in the prisons without any rights. Rights of citizens are curtailed and political dissidence is crushed with little regard to human rights. Since military rule does not enjoy international legitimacy, the number of countries being ruled by the military has come down considerably in recent times Why is the military in Latin America likely to get involved in drug trafficking? The drug trade which is­ one of the most lucrative businesses in the world ­ has flourished on Latin American soil. Most of the funding in Latin America comes from the illicit drug trade and human trafficking. These Latin American countries like Bolivia and Venezuela lack the political will to curb drug trafficking. The rightist paramilitary forces are given amnesty by the government in spite of their carrying on illicit drug trades. The Latin American countries generally do not extradite officials involved in the drug trade. The state does not provide protection to witnesses who testify against high profile traffickers and they are left to fend for themselves. A Guatemalan Army Lieutenant Colonel accused of smuggling 500 kilograms of cocaine to Florida was not extradited to the USA. Few army officials are tried or put behind bars in the Latin American countries. With support from the legitimate government, the army joins in the illicit drugs trade. The military gains strength from taxing the narcotic producers and traders These Latin American armies control most of the areas where cocaine is grown and it is these areas that are instrumental in providing financial support to the guerilla outfits. New relationships were forged with the decline of drug cartels and rise of guerilla armies. With increase in the revenue generated from the drugs trade, the sphere of influence of these armies also increased. The guerilla armies turned to the drugs trade to boost their economic strength and also provide employment to the disillusioned masses. The unemployed youth either joined the resistance or helped in the illegal smuggling of drugs. Official corruption has also played an important role in the flourishing of this trade. Breaches of code of conduct by senior military officials are rarely investigated in these countries. A significant element of official corruption in smuggling is clearly visible which provides a fertile ground for the military to join the drug trafficking activities of their respective nations. References: Thoughts on Democracy http://www.aedsb.org/JBS1art1.doc Modernization, Cultural Change, and Democracy By Ronald Inglehart, Christian Welzel The Daily Star: Internet Edition http://www.thedailystar.net/story.php?nid=31189 Lancet 2002, Willis BM, Levy BS. Child prostitution: Global health burden, research needs, and interventions.;359:1417-1422. Sinhalese Buddhist Nationalist Ideology: Implications for Politics… http://www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/ps040.pdf Bush’s Brush with Latin American Drug Lords www.thenation.com/doc/20070326/smyth Burma: Twenty Years of military Rule http://www.asiantribune.com/?q=node/12609 References: The Daily Star: Internet Edition http://www.thedailystar.net/story.php?nid=31189 Thoughts on Democracy http://www.aedsb.org/JBS1art1.doc Modernization, Cultural Change, and Democracy By Ronald Inglehart, Christian Welzel Literacy Crusades and Revolutionary Governments: The Cases of Cuba ... www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/recordDetail?accno=ED240230 http://www.asiantribune.com/?q=node/12609 Read More