Political Science: Affirmative Action - Literature review Example

Affirmative action Affirmative actions are policies which are intended to promote access to education and employment for non dominant groups usually minorities of all races. The primary cause for affirmative action is to address the disadvantaged positions of minorities in access to education or employment. These policies also aim to encourage public institutions to represent minorities. Affirmative action is promoted using recruitment programs for applicants from disadvantaged groups. In certain cases favored treatment is given to minorities which is known as reverse discrimination. Opponents of affirmative action state that it is another form of discrimination because it prevents qualified applications from obtaining entry to education and employment opportunities. They argue that preferential treatment should be given on the basis of educational and employment levels rather than on the basis of ethnicity or racial groups. The United States has also promoted affirmative action policies to allow certain disadvantaged groups like minorities and women better access to education and employment. The motivation has been to rectify the historical injustices towards minorities. They also are aimed at encouraging institutions like universities, hospitals and police forces to have greater representation of minorities. President John F. Kennedy issued the overall framework for affirmative action by the Executive Order 10925 in 1961. The order required government agencies to take the necessary steps for affirmative action to ensure equal treatment of applicants and employees without any discrimination based on race, creed or color. Affirmative action remains a controversial topic in the United States with numerous Supreme Court cases that have been contested on constitutional grounds (Bergmann, 19). The first legal protection for promoting affirmative action was the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment inside the United States Constitution. The clause stated that no American state can deny legal protection to any citizen within its jurisdiction. In 1954, the US Supreme Court ruled that segregated educational facilities were unequal and violated Federal law. The following year, laws were implemented which called for an end to segregation and integration of all educational facilities. The Executive Order 10925 established by President John F. Kennedy in 1961 called for affirmative action in government agencies for potential recruits and current employees. President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1965 announced a national program to improve the status of black Americans. This program was designed to initiate affirmative action in minorities so that they would develop those skills in their children. During the Civil Rights movement, an important strategy consisted of targeting local employers with threats of boycotts if African Americans were not hired by the businesses. Many of these companies had to comply because they operated in African American neighborhoods. President Nixon adopted affirmative action as a federal program for companies that had government contracts and for labor unions. This plan was known as the revised Philadelphia plan. President Lyndon Johnson embraced the concept of affirmative action in 1965 by issuing US Executive Order 11246 which called for organizations to take affirmative action to increase employment of people belonging to disadvantaged groups. Several American states like Michigan and California have also launched affirmative action programs that aim to given preferential treatment to minorities and women (Bolick, 25). A famous form of affirmative action exists in centers of education inside the United States. American universities assess applications on the basis of race, ethnicity and social class. Some individuals can be awarded scholarships. Research conducted for law schools found out that half of black law students drop out after the first year of law school and rank near the bottom of their class. This study concludes that the rate of new black law graduates would increase if affirmative action programs were ended. This would allow less qualified students to attend less prestigious schools. The State of Texas passed a law which guarantees entry to any state university if the student finishes in the top ten percent of the graduating class. Other states like Florida and California have replaced racial quotas with other programs. Another research conducted however disputes the claim that affirmative action programs do not work. The results of the study were that these programs encourage disadvantaged students to take advantage of group preference policies. They also tend to benefit the fortunate among the preferred group. They increase the incentives of preferred groups to perform at their best. Proponents of affirmative action programs also believe that it has helped provide better access to black students. These programs have also helped in enhancing the intellectual development of minorities. Students from minorities also display a more complex thinking ability and greater likelihood of being involved in civic activities. They also have a greater motivation to achieve and pursue their graduate studies (Boston, 78). One criticism directed against affirmative action is that it represents government backed racial discrimination. According to these critics, affirmative action policies send the wrong message to minorities that they not capable of considering their own merits. It also creates a view that underrepresented minorities do not emphasize on education and academic achievement as compared with the majority. However this argument is not correct since past and institutionalized discrimination is responsible for the disadvantaged position of minorities. Affirmative action has also shown to benefit the entire society. The end goal is to embrace all cultural heritages to increase the quality of the society. A study conducted by the American Psychological Association found that students with diverse educational settings have a higher level of critical thinking and understanding the cultural differences. Another criticism directed towards affirmative action is that creates a system of reward and punishment based on the disadvantaged group of an individual. However many discrepancies are a result of segregation policies. Many state and city universities had lower tuition fees for whites during segregation. As more minorities have entered these universities, the tuition fees have also risen. Martin Luther King was a proponent of affirmative action because it would be helpful in redressing the injustices of the past for the black American community. Affirmative action makes sense to enhance the racial, ethnic and gender diversity of minority groups. It is also sensible that student bodies, police forces or other groups should be more diversified because it justifies the means (Boston, 58). A landmark decision by the US Supreme Court in 1978 in the case of University of California v. Bakke affirmed the legal validity of affirmative action giving equal access to minorities. The court had ruled that race could be one of the numerous factors used for college admissions. The court also found that quotas protected minority applicants from competition against regular applicants and was unconstitutional. However it was decided that a constitutionally valid affirmative action program which took into account the applicant’s qualities was legally valid. Affirmative action programs have been upheld in federal and state government agencies. Several major companies have adopted programs in the United States to help minorities and encourage diversity. A US Labor department report in 2003 stated that three million minorities and six million females had gained from this program. Another landmark case since the Bakke decision was the University of Michigan’s affirmative action programs. Two cases in 2000 and 2001 saw students Gratz and Grutten challenge the University’s admission policy. They argued that it was violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the fourteenth amendment. The Supreme Court however upheld the University of Michigan’s policy stating that race can be one of the factors used for admission procedures. However the court ruled that the undergraduate point system had to be modified. Affirmative action programs provide equal chances and opportunities for minorities as numerous research studies have proven that education is the most powerful tool for personal advancement and achievement. Affirmative action programs ensure that people receive the same opportunity because minorities are at a disadvantage when they enter the application process. These programs seek to level the playing field (Bowen, 36). Another reason why affirmative action policies are effective is that because in the past forty years the representation of minorities in college campuses has increased. It also helps in decreasing the racial stereotypes prevalent in society. They weaken the stereotypes by ensuring that minorities obtain positions or status which they typically would not achieve. Many education leaders in support of affirmative action policies cite economic or racial diversity arguments to support their stance. The diversification of college and university campuses improves the learning environment of the college. An ethnically and culturally diverse group of students offer different experiences and perspectives which enrich a college campus in many ways. Racially diverse colleges help prepare students to enter the workforce and aids in life preparation. Blacks and Hispanics score very low on college exams because of their disadvantaged family backgrounds and mediocre schools. Until the chronic gap is closed, affirmative action policies remain the best factor in ensuring a racially diverse student body. Even though affirmative action enjoys support amongst education policy makers, the general consensus of the American people is opposed to it. Research conducted found that two thirds of Americans want to eliminate or alter affirmative action policies. The issue is further divided amongst blacks and whites. An estimated fifty percent of blacks oppose affirmative action programs. Affirmative action opponents have successfully been pushing for legislation that have ended some programs in government contracting and prompted new rules on minority procurement in the federal government (Bolick, 55). Opponents of affirmative action imply that a large percentage of white workers would lose their jobs as a result of such policies. This is not correct because there are currently one hundred million employed white civilians as opposed to two million unemployed black civilians. A black worker would only displace less than two percent of whites. The main source of unemployment among white workers has to do with outsourcing and factory relocations. Another argument advanced by opponents is that Asians and Jews also faced the same hardships yet have prospered. They argue that blacks can also advance economically as the Asians and Jews did. However, historically the Jews and Asians who immigrated to the United States had a much higher level of education and work experience as compared with blacks. Affirmative action programs are criticized because they are perceived to be another form of discrimination. However the definition of affirmative action is to overcome prejudicial treatment by inclusion. Affirmative action policies increase job satisfaction and organizational commitment among beneficiaries. Many opponents feel that affirmative action is no longer valid as it was thirty years ago. However this statement ignores the reality of women and minorities. Women in the United States still earn seventy two cents as compared with one dollar for a male. Blacks have twice the unemployment rate as compared with whites. The average median income of a black family is also half as compared with whites. The lack of affirmative action policies would prevent black students from obtaining admission in many universities and restrict progress towards racial equality (Bolick, 65). Affirmative action remains a controversial topic in the United States. Opponents of affirmative action programs believe that it would cause unemployment for white workers and discrimination cannot be cured by discrimination. Another criticism directed towards these policies is that they result in lack of self esteem for minorities. Many opponents argue that affirmative action policies are not valid because there has been much improvement for minorities and women in the United States. The United States has promoted many affirmative action policies that are designed to help minorities have better access to education and employment. The motivation behind these programs was to rectify the historical injustices and discrimination towards minorities. Affirmative action programs have been proven to be beneficial because of their ability to allow greater representation and diversification of universities, police force, hospitals and other public institutes. Affirmative action has also shown to benefit the entire society. The end goal is to embrace all cultural heritages to increase the quality of the society. A study conducted by the American Psychological Association found that students with diverse educational settings have a higher level of critical thinking and understanding the cultural differences. Affirmative action programs are still valid because minorities and females are still at a disadvantage as compared with the majority. Many education leaders in support of affirmative action policies cite economic or racial diversity arguments to support their stance. The diversification of college and university campuses improves the learning environment of the college. An ethnically and culturally diverse group of students offer different experiences and perspectives which enrich a college campus in many ways. . Works Cited: Barbara Bergmann, In Defense of Affirmative Action. New York: BasicBooks, 1996. Clint Bolick, The Affirmative Action Fraud: Can We Restore the American Civil Rights Vision? Washington, DC: Cato Institute, 1996. Thomas D. Boston, Affirmative Action and Black Entrepreneurship. New York: Routledge, 1999. William G. Bowen and Derek Curtis Bok, The Shape of the River: Long-Term Consequences of Considering Race in College and University Admissions. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998. Read More