Comparing and Contrasting Philosophers on Broad Themes of Philosophy - Term Paper Example

COMPARING AND CONTRASTING PHILOSOPHERS ON BROAD THEMES OF PHILOSOPHY Outline I. Introduction The paper concentrates on six famous thinkers or theorists and their perception on three broad themes namely: Political philosophy Tyranny Democracy II. John Stuart Mill a. Political philosophy-he developed two philosophies that majored on the freedoms of speech and thought b. Tyranny-discourages the use of social tyranny and the tyranny of the majority c. Democracy- he concentrated mostly on liberty issues that were concerned with the freedom of expression. III. Locke a. Political philosophies-he insinuated that political philosophy was controlled by the principles of corollary rights. b. Tyranny-Locke insists that unequal distribution of resources can only be justified under slim circumstances. c. Democracy- Locke insists that no one has the right to change moral laws or laws of nature. IV. Marx Weber a. Political philosophy-developed the conflict philosophy that identified the inequalities surrounding capitalism b. Tyranny-On tyranny Marx agreed with Mill that the government was not to portray any form of tyranny over its citizens c. Democracy-He became rather democratic when he advocated for a political partnerships as they were not only noble actions but also ways of living together. V. Aristotle a. Political Philosophies-he made almost 150 treaties and philosophies dealing with political science. b. Tyranny-Aristotle noted that tyranny was insensitive and even led to revolution and strife. c. Democracy-He became rather democratic when he advocated for a political partnerships as they were not only noble actions but also ways of living together. VI. Niccolo Machiavelli a. Political philosophy-became a famous political theorist as a result of his treaties and philosophies known as the Discourses. b. Democracy-In the democratic arena he became popular due to his manual of state and his adoption of strict literary forms. VII. Adam Smith a. Political philosophy- occasionally shared his philosophies and ideologies with his learners especially his philosophy on moral sentiments. b. Tyranny- He also realized that tyranny led to wrangles that resulted from selfish motives. c. Democracy- On democracy issues he seemed to support the notion of a reduced government intervention in trade. VIII. Conclusion -These famous theorists spear headed the development of liberalism. Comparing and Contrasting Philosophers on Broad Themes of Philosophy Introduction Philosophy concentrates on the study of general and fundamental problems that are linked to reality, values, reason, language, and existence. The primary objective of philosophers is to provide solutions to problems facing humanity. Contributors to political liberalism and classical liberalism are linked with philosophers of enlightenment. Liberalism is the most controversial ideology among the thinkers and began as early as the 18th century and was a crucial step towards curbing aristocracy, but at the same time advocating for self-governance. The extreme opinions revolved around the ideas of the primacy of the nation, the individual and self-determination as opposed to religion and the state as being the vital units of law, economy and politics. The original contributors include: Adam Smith, Niccolo Machiavelli, John Stuart Mill, Aristotle, Marx Weber and Locke. Most of these political philosophers were mostly Romans or from ancient Greek. Later on after various evolutions occurred in their economies the aspect of liberalism broadened to embrace other approaches and liberalism itself adopted other ideologies. There are also many views and debates on what liberalism constitutes of1. The broad aspects reviewed in the paper are political economy, political philosophy and political science. John Stuart Mill Political Philosophy John Stuart Mill was the eldest son of James Mill an economist. His Benthamite father ensured John Mill got proper education and in accordance with his rigorous expectations. At the age of 3 years, John Stuart Mill had learned Greek and at the age of eight years, he learnt Latin. John Mill was already a formidable intellectual though he was emotionally depressed by the time he reached adulthood. He abandoned the Benthamite teachings and improved the field of political economy after his recovery from a nervous breakdown. His book, “Principles of Political Economy”, became the top economics course book for almost 40 years after its publication2. The book generally elaborated the ideas of Adam Smith and David Ricardo, which basically revolved around the aspects of political science. He assisted in developing opportunity cost, comparative advantage and economies of scale in trade. His approaches were different from other philosophers as he concentrated mostly on trade. Mill respected a lot the freedom of thought and speech. His defense mechanism on freedom was backed up by two major philosophies. First, he stated that if everyone was allowed to make their own choices then there would be maximization of the society’s utilities in the economic and political sector. Secondly, Mill thought that freedom was essential for the overall development of the human welfare. His article on liberty enunciated on the principle that the sole end on which man is warranted, collectively or individually in distorting liberty is similar to self –protection.Surprisingly, Alan Ryan, his biographer states that Stuart did not perceive property and contract rights as sections of freedom even though he did not advocate for Laissez-faire. He favored trade protectionism, inheritance taxation and regulation of working hours for employees. Interestingly, though Mill supported mandatory education he never advocated for the mandatory schooling. Instead, he suggested an examination state system and voucher system for schools to ensure learning was effective3 Tyranny Mill’s vision was to see a nation where everyone was free and had the right to do whatever they want with minimal restrictions and government interference. According to Mill, an ideal society refers to a community where freedoms on citizens are unlimited. Mill advocated for a type of government that would allow citizens to do what they wanted as long as it does not infringe the rights and freedoms of others. Mill also argued that the government should only limit those privileges that may cause harm to other people. Mill vehemently opposed the use of social tyranny or the tyranny of majority. He insists that though a large group of people may support an opinion that does not mean it is helpful or right. Mill insisted that curbing tyranny among the magistrate is not enough tyranny of prevailing feelings and opinions also needs to be limited. There is also need to limit the methods used by the society to impose practices and ideas as laws of conduct. The methods should only involve civil penalties as the ideal method4. Mill and Marx main difference when dealing with tyranny is based on the fact that Mill requests freedom for everyone, while Marx wants freedom for the underprivileged or poor working class. However, both philosophers viewed tyranny as the main cause of backwardness in the society. Democracy Mill majored a lot on liberty issues especially the freedom of speech. Freedom of speech allowed all opinions, possibilities and voicestobe heard as they enriched the society. Reduced government limitations, censoring and rules allow the country to be more democratic and self-governing. Mill, however, insisted that freedom is only liberty if a person uses it to pursue his or her own needs without the intention of depriving others their freedom. A regime that practices minimal government involvement has easier access to idea and overall efficiency since everybody can do what they desire without being silenced or hindered5. It is clear that for democracy to be effective everyone has to be included that explains the reason whyhe is so keen to demand freedom for everyone. He believes that no government should meddle with the freedom of speech unless the individual is causing direct harm or damage to another person.Mill unlike Marx does not want any government intervention while Marx thinks that a communist based government system is important. According to Aristotle distributive justices govern the territories people live in that support the notion that everyone should live satisfactorily. The laws and constitution determine how wealth and property are distributed. The challenge facing democracy lies on the processes of making the laws that will ensure all citizens live appropriately. Mill blames the Spartan laws for the wealth inequality that exists among the poor who possess very little and the rich who possess a lot. The legislator who makes laws will be answerable if strife breaks out as a result of factions caused by city dwellers. The legislator is responsible or any negative consequences arising as a result of making poor laws6. This implies that the legislative bodies of various countries should make laws based on the principles of democracy, lest they will suffer the consequences arising from instituting exploitative constitutions. The constitution is the fundamental tool for protecting the rights and freedoms of citizens; therefore, it should provide for democracy as one way of allowing liberty among the citizens. Locke Political Philosophy John Locke was an intriguing individual as evidenced by the impact he made on the history of political economy and philosophy. His brilliance in breadth and exposition of scholarly activities will remain to be profoundly influential. Locke came up with a radical concept that political philosophy was under the principles of corollary rights and ownership of property. The philosophy was linked with his famous statement that a man will only own a resource if he mixes it with labor. Locke went on to suggest that government involvement in securing the property and life of citizens should be limited. This is because he believed that in an ideal state several problems occur, thus making life insecure than when being protected by a minimal state. He is also famous due to his literatures on toleration, where he advocated for the right of freedom of religion and conscience in addition to his criticism on matters of patriarchies and hereditary monarchy. When he died his philosophy for political support seemed to lean on the principles of the British Whig party, which was the age of enlightenment, development of a separated church and state and the development of the human right theories7. Locke, unlike many other philosophers, was very interested in religious issues. He believed in Christian values because they constituted the primary ingredients of a moral society. A deeper study of just any philosopher reveals more vivid aspects, which introductory caricatures might not portray. A simple review might not reveal a complete sketch of all that should be known about a great thinker. His political philosophy is split into two eras, first his Oxford era from 1652-1666 and his the Shaftesbury era. Ashley cooper employed Locke from 1666-1683 when Shaftesbury died. His treaties were somewhat distinguishable and absolutely born in mind8. The treaties he wrote later on should not be read just as classics; instead, they should be treated as mature peak of his political philosophy insightful and original theory of power, government, trust, rights and property since Lockean continuities are evident in political ways of thinking. Scriptural exegesis supported his uncertainty, political ideas and any doctrine that might result in the persecution. His fear of unsettled anarchy and persecution made him not to admit writing the book “Two Treaties” that gave extreme and provocative opinions. Later on similar authors were executed as a result of the seditious thoughts. He could have been executed for writing provocative thoughts a scenario that was common among the philosophers. Tyranny The treaties made by John Locke justify the right and freedom to own property privately without the civil powers interfering. He begins by saying that whatever is nature or God given is given in equal bits. The descendants of Adam share a similar inheritance; anybody born has the right to preservation. Locke posed a question on how earth with all its fruits given to humanity can become one man’s property. Locke intended to undermine the legitimacy of the tyranny and absolute rule the rulers possessed. His answer indicated that human beings are their own property and no one can claim their ownership. This also applies to labor if one mixes labor with land then the individual automatically owns the property. Locke’s ultimate determinants of ownership revolve around labor input on planting, fathering and hunting9.Unequal and disproportionate distribution of land and resources for the rich only gets a moral justification only if it has a voluntary and tacit consent. Unlike Mills and Max he used religious aspects to clarify his theories. Democracy During his era as a moral philosopher and a teacher in Christ Church he insisted on the importance of obeying the “Law of Nature” which every human being had to obey. On a democratic basis the moral laws according to Locke are forbidden they include murder and theft. Others depend on specific sentiments such as conditional attitudes and periodic duties. They bind every aspect that revolves around equality and includes each and every individual without discriminating them7. No one has the right to alter the laws of nature or the moral laws despite their disposition to be influenced by others, their weird laziness and weakness of following the majority. Just like Mill he insists on reduced government intervention. Marx Weber Political Philosophy Maximilian Carl Weber was German political economist and sociologist who had a huge impact on social research, social theory, and sociology as a discipline generally. Marx basically focused on the inequality that was constant in capitalism. His conflict philosophy dealt with two types of people in the society the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The bourgeoisie were the rich folks who could control the factors of production from land, capital and labor. Proletariats were the “less privileged” who were the employees under the bourgeoisie. Marx was keen to note that the Bourgeoisie individuals from the capitalist nations exploited employees. Marx watched as the rich manipulated the poor by taking away their privileges10. The humble employees were so vulnerable that the rich exploited their meekness for their own beneficial gain. Many scholars had predicted that there would be an uprising when the poor realized they were being oppressed and could not endure the harsh conditions any more6. He foresaw a hypothesis where the poor would form a class consciousness and have a common identity as a result of the exploitation.He was rather unique as he mostly majored in sociology unlike other liberals. The workers would unite gang up and create a global revolution to subdue the suppression.His vision was however was not fulfilled after peace prevailed and the revolution ended the employees started owning the methods production. This would mean that monopoly in controlling the factors of production would end and there for an equal share in owning property. His visualization however did not come true since the societies evolved due to education.Financial standards and job skills that Marx perceived were impossible were reached3. Exploitation seized when unions and labor laws were established and started protecting workers. And after that factory workers and skillful businessmen began earning reasonable salaries that were similar to those of the middleclass workers. On an economic perspective Marx was viewed to be a mechanistic persona characteristic that makes him a unique philosopher. He drove historical laws and materialism into great levels in a one dimensional casual chain by using his communist philosophy. Tyranny Marx to a certain extent agrees with Mill on tyranny in that citizens should not at any instance be oppressed. The methods Marx use to eliminate the potential tyranny and proletariat oppression, however, were rather radical and Mill could not have given them support. His communist philosophy supported the move to rebel against the rich classes and abolish the private property rule to ensure equality. His communism aimed to over-throw the government for the purpose of implementing a fair system. Weber believed that the only people capable of curbing the tyranny of the wealthy were the poor majority. His theory seemed to support Mill’s ideology that the government should not demonstrate any form of tyranny or suppression over its citizens. Even though Marx seemed to hate tyrannies set by the wealthy bourgeois his idea of ousting the government and picking everybody’s property was actually another form of tyranny by itself2. He was undermining the opinions and wishes of the upper and middle class earners simply because the lower class were the majority. Democracy Marx believedthat advocating for communism was another form of exercising their democratic right on equality. The Communists had similar plans with the proletarian parties which involved overthrowing the bourgeois supremacy so that they can acquire political power.Marx used the Communist Manifesto to organize and delineate his ideas. Democracy advocatedforequality and fair distribution of resources for all but unfortunately the difference between the bourgeois and the poor was extremely huge11. Marx supported the abolishment of private property to ensure fair life styles and opportunities. This was the concrete basis he has for his ideas and reasoning of communist governments. The communist movement according to Marx would give more freedom to children and women who are usually exploited and deprived off their democratic rights, involved in forced labor and the saddest issue is that they lived below the poverty line1. He aimed at proving that women were not gadgets of production. Aristotle Political Philosophy Aristotle’s father was a court physician who worked in the Macedonian royal family, but Aristotle’s birthplace was Stagira Northern Greece he studied medicine at a tender age and later on he went to Athens to learn philosophy under Plato12. At Plato’s academy he was an excellent pupil but disagreed with some of the teachings by Plato. When Plato tragically died, Aristotle became the most allegeable head of the school. When he left Athens he spent most of his time studying biology and travelling in Turkey and the islands surrounding it. In 338, he resumed to Macedonia to coach Alexander the Great after he had conquered Athens. His return to Athens was noted due to school he established and named it the Lyceum. After Alexander died Athens rejected the Macedonian rule and the political situation for Aristotle became precarious. To avoid being killed he took refuge in the Euboea Island where died later on5. Scholars claim that he wrote more than one hundred and fifty philosophical treaties that dealt with the broad topic of political science. 30 tackle philosophical setbacks from politics, aesthetics, physics, morals and biology13. Others are presumed to be incomplete lecture notes and others work by members of his institution. He stands out from the rest of theorists as he had the ability to use biological evidence for his theories. Tyranny Aristotle did not have a problem with the different social classes brought about by wealth matters. Cleverness, luck, hard work and inheritance were some of the aspects that played a role in generating the differences. His main aim was to maintain a reasonable gap between the poor and the wealthy in the city life. When a wide alarming gap however emerged between the very rich and the very poor then the tyranny issue emerged on distributive justice. The tyranny resulted in conditions that readily caused civil strife, revolution and discontent4. With cases of the wealthy being called to philanthropy and liberality. Success and wealth seemed to be great thing until their consequences started surfacing .Where the rich could exploit the poor by having taxation systems which could limit wealth accumulation and penalize excessive consumption. Democracy Aristotle saw the empire and the community as an organic city. According to Aristotle, the city acted like a political partnership or community14. The aim of the city was not only meant to ensure economic stability and avoid injustice but also allow citizens to live a comfortable life and do beautiful deeds. The political partnership route should therefore have been considered as noble action but not as a way of living together. This was very different from modern approaches especially the social contract theory where people left their nature as a result of inconveniences or the fear of a tragic death. Niccolo Machiavelli Political Philosophy Niccolodei Machiavelli, a renowned political theorist who became famous due to his controversial impacts in the political arena was born in 1469, at Florence. He witnessed the French Invasion and the negative impact it had. In 1498, he became the secretary of the ten empires after the Medici escaped. He held the sit till the collapse of the nation in 1512. He was involved in a number of missions four in France and one to the Maximilian Empire. His reports and treatises during the journey on matters of Germany and France had far reaching intuitions. In order to restore Medici to its former glory, Machiavelli had to betray his patron. In 1513, he was arrested and charged with conspiracy and was tortured but denied all the charges on the purported conspiracy. Although he was pardoned, he opted to retire from the public eye and devote his life to literature. People would later refer him as the predecessor of modern political theories and philosophies. Unlike his other counter parts his, philosophies and treaties were used in war. His philosophies are referred to as the Discourses. Democracy He became famous as a result of his political contributions especially on his concentration on embracing strict literary forms. His manual of state also known as the Prince also contributed on increasing his popularity level in the democratic arena. His upfront pragmatic treatise on the application of power and political conduct were very unique also. Adam Smith Political Philosophy Adam Smith was a famous philosopher, political economist and from Scotland in general he was like political scientist. He rose to fame as a result of the influential book known as “The Wealth of Nations”. Adam Smith published this book in the year 1776. His father was the comptroller of customs at Fife Scotland. His exact date of birth is unknown, but his baptism took place in 1723 at Kirkcaldy six months after his father’s death. At just 15 years of age, Adam Smith went to Glasgow University where he studied philosophy and was taught by the famous lecturer Professor Francis Hutcheson15. In 1740, he enrolled at Balliol College in Oxford but as Robert Scott phrased it the oxford school had little or no effect on what would be his lifework and in 1746 he relinquished the school exhibition. Under the benefaction of Lord Kames Smith began delivering open lectures in Edinburgh. Some dealt with Belle’s letters and rhetoric until his middle 20s when he explicated the economic idea of “the simple and obvious method of natural liberty”. He later revealed his enquiry to the world on the causes and nature of the Nation’s wealth. At around 1750, he met a man known as David Hume who became one of his closest allies16. Unlike many philosophers Adam was a lecturer and could easily share his ideologies with his students he simply had a platform to speak out.Examples of his philosophiesinclude the “invisible hand philosophy” and the “theory of moral sentiments”. Tyranny Adam Smith was selected as a professor to teach logic in 1751 at Glasgow University but later transferred and became the chairman of the moral philosophy. His lectures tackled the field of rhetoric, ethics, political economy and jurisprudence. He is mainly recognized for publishing the controversial theory on moral sentiments that had facts and points made in some of the Glasgow lectures. His philosophy meant to reveal just wicked some people were their interest were only aimed at maximizing return for their own interest while disregarding the rights of others. The work earned Smith reputation in just a single day the paperwork basically revolved around explaining ethical approval and disapproval. He had the capability to make fluent, rhetorical and persuasive arguments. Smith’s emphasis on moral sentiments using sympathy as a vital human motive was debatable with a lot of contradiction arising from the role self-interest played in the nation’s wealth. Earlier on he had advocated for the harmonization of human motives and the activities held by a beneficent providence8. Later on sadly, even after the theme of “Invisible hand” advocating for harmonized interests, smith cold still find cases of wrangles and realized just how narrow minded selfish human motives are. Democracy Adam Smith was a man who seemed to support the idea of minimizing government intervention and levying taxes in free markets. Smith supported division of labor to create assembly line created wealth rather than land oriented wealth3. He later on applied the same logic when dealing with wealth generation to increase the effectiveness of the British rule on the American colonies. According to him the cost of retaining the colonies was not worth it. All these political speculations in the Western nations are almost as old as the Western tradition. One thing for sure is that Aristotle and Plato are the men responsible for providing a firm foundation on liberalism. All these philosophers had some rough life time experiences ranging from torture, execution and imprisonment due to their extremist views and statements17. Their bravery to air their views concerning the barbaric nature of some political aspects shaped up the judicial and legislative systems. These great thinkers were undoubtedly true liberals who were keen to detect flaws in some of the institutions in the government. Some also made significant impact on religious institutions which are currently some of the most powerful pillars of the society. Conclusion Several philosophers have taken time to study and provide literature based on the broad terms of philosophy. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing problems facing humanity because of its critical and systematic approaches in addition to reliance on rational arguments. Among the most notable philosophers include Adam Smith, Niccolo Machiavelli, John Stuart Mill, Aristotle, Marx Weber and Locke. These philosophers concentrated on the study of the broad themes of political philosophy, tyranny and democracy. Their contributions to the subject of philosophy are worthy understanding by the modern leaders, politicians, educators and students. Bibliography Anglo, Sydney.Machiavelli: A Dissection. Gollancz: Gramercy Books, 2009. Grazia, Sebastian. The Classical Mind: A History of Western Philosophy. New York:Princeton University Press, 2008. Fleisher, Martin.A History of the Association Psychology. Kentucky: Athenaeum publishers, 2007. Hulliung, Mark. Introduction to Political Thinkers. Michigan: Princeton University Press, 2010. Ridolfi, Roberto. Primitive, Archaic and Modern Economies: Dalton:University of Chicago Press, 2013. Whitfield, J. H., Discourses on earlier thinkers. London: Heffer printing press. 2011. Lucien Jaume, "Hobbes and the Philosophical Sources of Liberalism", New Jersey: The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes Leviathan, 2012. Bronowski,Mazlish, the Western Intellectual Tradition. New York: Oxford University press, 2012. Read More