Kant's Moral Philosophy - Assignment Example

1. According to Kant, intuitions only gain objective status by being thought or conceptualized. How do empirical concepts perform this function? Kant believed that unless intuition (or perception) is processed by empirical concept it remains a raw sensory data without any knowledge of object. According to Kant there are two sources through which knowledge can be obtained: sensibility and the understanding. There are mainly two types of representations: intuitions and the concepts. Intuitions arise from the sensibility and help to perceive the objects. Concepts help in the intellectual understanding of the perceptions. Kant stated that it is true that all our knowledge is based on raw sensory data that we receive through senses. But intellect is needed to analyze and process that raw sensory data. The intuition relates to the object directly and is particular in nature while an empirical concept relates to several objects (or perceptions) indirectly and is general in nature. The ‘form’ is based on intellect (concept) which is independent of all experience and the ‘matter’ (intuition) is based on sensory impressions or experience we receive through our senses. Kant argued that mind is not like ‘empty slate’ but it comes filled with certain ‘a priori’ concepts and categories. Mind analyses the raw sensory data according to those concepts and categories (pure concepts such as space, time etc.). The cognition is not possible with a single faculty. The cognition occurs only when there are both intuitions and conceptual thoughts and both are interdependent. A sensible intuition does not provide determinate knowledge of objects. Sensibility receives the impressions and understanding (concepts) analyses that information. Both are essential to gain the knowledge of an object. Intuitions do not contain any meaning and cannot lead to an object unless these are processed by mental machinery of understanding. Kant argued that we cannot know anything until the raw sensory experience is brought under the ‘concept’ which is provided by reason alone. He maintained that to experience an object, the sensual perceptions or intuitions must be conceptualized or in other words intuitions must be brought under concepts or categories. Concepts arise from the understanding and they perform the act of unification of different representations in to a single representation. ‘A posteriori’ or empirical concepts are based on experience. Any empirical concept is a general representation and can be true to many perceptions. A number of empirical concepts (such as number, quality etc) as well as specific concepts are required to recognize an object. Kant stated that there are four types of faculties of cognition: intuition, understanding, judgment and reason (“Critique of Pure Reason”). Intuition represents the lowest faculty of cognition while the reason represents the highest faculty of cognition. Kant stated that “synthetic a priori judgment” is derived using concepts. ‘Synthetic a priori’ judgment is based on ‘form’ and ‘matter’. The ‘form’ is based on intellect (a priori) which is independent of all experience and the ‘matter’ (a posteriori) is based on sensory impressions or experience we receive through our senses. Empirical concepts unify and synthesize the perceptions by act of judgments and lead to empirical knowledge of the object. 2. Explain this three-fold synthesis by which intuitions are rendered objective. Show how this synthetic process takes place on both the empirical and transcendental levels. According to Kant both perceptions and concepts are required to have knowledge of an object. But Kant argued that synthesis is required to make sense of the raw sensory information. Synthesis is the act of combining different representations and arriving at totally new representation to know an object. According to Kant synthesis plays an important role in knowing the objects and it helps to convert the perceptions or intuitions into concepts. Without synthesis there cannot be knowledge of an object. Kant states that intuitions without concepts lack contents and concepts without intuitions remain only thoughts. According to Kant three-fold synthesis is essential to combine intuitions and concepts. The first synthesis is called Apprehending in Intuition, the second is called Reproducing in Imagination and the third is called Recognizing in Concepts. The synthesis of ‘apprehending in intuition’ is related to raw perception or intuition, ‘reproducing in imagination’ describes the role of imagination and ‘recognizing in concepts’ is related to formation of concepts. These three kinds of synthesis may also be related to the three faculties of cognition: Sensibility, Imagination and Understanding. The first two kinds of synthesis (‘apprehending in intuition’ and ‘reproducing in imagination’) do not occur independently, they are inseparable. All the three kinds of synthesis (of apprehension, reproduction and recognition) are essential to know an object. Kant’s first synthesis ‘apprehending in intuition’ describes that object is not perceived instantaneously by the mind. Every apprehension (intuition) of an object occurs in phases. Different impressions occur in a successive manner and at different intervals of time. Each apprehension contains manifold. But to present manifold in a single representation, it is essential to first go through these manifold impressions and then synthesize these successive impressions. This is called synthesis of apprehension. Without this synthesis manifold of impressions would create confusion. The second synthesis ‘reproducing in imagination’ describes the capacity to associate different images or reproduction of the phenomena. According to Kant imagination is connecting the manifolds of intuition by forming an image. This synthesis reproduces manifolds of the intuition by way of association. The third synthesis ‘recognizing in concepts’ uses memory and the concepts. In order to relate past representations with the present, the use of concept becomes essential. According to Kant ‘apperception’ is needed in order to recognize the objects. ‘Apperception’ is applying concepts or act of judging. According to Kant there are two types of intuitions and concepts: empirical and pure. Pure concepts (time and cause) are a priori (not dependent on experience) and come from within the mind. These pure concepts are called categories. Kant explains that pure intuitions are brought under categories via transcendental aesthetic and transcendental logic. This leads to transcendental knowledge through transcendental deduction. Transcendental deduction means that human beings are conscious of time and cause in their cognitive faculties. If the concepts and intuitions are a posteriori (based on experience) or are empirical then the knowledge is empirical. The synthetic process occurs when empirical intuitions are brought under empirical concepts. 3. Why does Kant maintain that moral law cannot be derived from human nature? How does Kant’s claim mark a break with previous ethical theories? According to Kant moral laws cannot be derived from human nature as human nature itself faces conflicts between good and evil tendencies. There are many aspects of human nature that can be used either for good or for evil. Human nature is also influenced by desires and appetites. Thus human nature can corrupt our moral motivation or can contradict the moral values set out by the moral law. Kant states that every human being is a rational being and has a free will. According to this free will he/she can choose between different options. Kant stated that to pursue good and to avoid evil, it is essential to use free will and free will can only be applied when we follow reason. The capacity of human being to use free will is based on practical reason. Thus Kant believed that moral laws can only be discovered "a priori" (or through acts of reasoning) and not from experience. Moral laws do not depend on the actual behavior of people and instead tell us what we ought to do. So the moral laws can be based on only pure or practical reason. Kant states that the essential character of any law is that it should be universal and should not allow any exceptions. Kant claims that true moral law is also universal in nature and can be derived from the principle of the categorical imperative. A Categorical Imperative tells us what we ought to do. It is not based on experience but it precedes experience. For example a moral law tells us that we should not tell a lie. This moral law is applicable universally, in all conditions and without any exceptions. It does not rely on the experiences of other people and instead it could be followed and should be followed by everyone. Kant stated that the consequences of an action cannot validate the morality of that action and empirical motives (such as self-interest) can lead us away from morality. So need to have ‘a priori’ moral law and it should be followed irrespective of the consequences it produces. Thus Kant’s claim marks a break with previous empirically derived ethical theories such as those based on utility, virtue, moral sense, happiness etc. Kant stated that even the motives of happiness and virtue can lead us to a bad state (such as arrogance) and can decrease our morality. So the highest motive is to do our duty as this is the right thing to do. According to Kant, only reason and not experience can tell us what our duty is. Kant’s moral philosophy negates the idea that that moral principle can be inferred through experience. According to Kant empirical moral philosophy tells the people what other people do but it cannot tell what we ought to do. Empirical moral philosophy is descriptive in nature and does not tell us about normative principles. So moral law originates in reason alone and cannot be known by drawing inferences from experiences of human nature. 4. Explain Kant’s idea of a good will and its connection with his idea of duty. Kant’s moral philosophy is based on his idea of good will (“Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals”). According to Kant, the goal of morality or moral laws is not to produce happiness or pleasure but goodwill because only goodwill is good without any qualification. Kant says that goodwill is most important thing in morality. Goodwill does not have inferior motives of self interest, happiness etc. Goodwill is intrinsically good and does not depend on the consequences of the action. According to Kant goodwill is not good because it produces good results but because goodwill is good in itself. So even if goodwill results into nothing good, it is still valuable. A person with goodwill can never be immoral. Even happiness and Intelligence are not good without qualification. Happiness is as good as one is worthy of it otherwise it can lead to bad state of morality such as pride or arrogance. Intelligence, courage etc can also be put to wrong use by bad persons if these are not supported by goodwill. Kant explains that the reason for this bad state is the bad will. One should do the right thing only for the sake of doing the right thing. There should be no ulterior motive of doing the right thing. An action can be considered moral if it is guided by goodwill and not by motives of self interest, happiness etc. For example if a person is honest because he is afraid of being caught by someone, then he is not working according to goodwill and his motives cannot be considered moral. Kant states that a goodwill acts according to duty. Moral laws require that our actions should be guided by the duty. Duty is done out of respect for the laws of categorical imperative. To act in accordance with duty is to follow the moral law set by categorical imperative. Categorical imperative means moral laws are absolute in nature. According to Kant moral laws are imperatives. Moral laws must be followed irrespective of the consequences. Moral laws are not dependent upon the inferior motives (such as personal interests, happiness etc.) but goodwill. Kant says that there are two types of duties which must be performed in accordance with moral law i.e. perfect duty and imperfect duty. Perfect duty is the duty that is to be performed without exceptions. Imperfect duty is essentially not to be followed rigidly but if performed, can be praiseworthy (such as giving some money in charity). Kant says only those actions have moral worth that are performed with a sense of duty but out of respect for moral laws. If a person does a right thing for a wrong reason, that person cannot be considered moral. It is the duty of every rational being to do right things for right reasons. So the moral action is to obey one’s duty and to do the right thing for the sake of doing the right thing. Works Cited Kant, Immanuel, 2008. Critique of Pure Reason, Kants Moral Philosophy, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Kant, Immanuel, 2008. Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, Kants Moral Philosophy, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Read More