Visual Arts Perspective and Its Types of Meanings - Literature review Example

VISUAL ARTS PERSPECTIVE AND ITS TYPES OF MEANINGS INTRODUCTION In visual arts, perspective has been defined as “a method of presenting an illusion of the three-dimensional world on a two-dimensional surface” (Kleiner & Mamiya, 2006, p.874). The depiction of perspective is essentially the creation of a convincing illusion of space in a two-dimensional image, while all objects are portrayed within a single spatial system. Though the use of perspective was known in medieval Greece and Rome, paintings focused more on spiritual concerns rather than the illusory creation of perspective. The perspectival systems developed during the Renaissance which followed the medieval age, brought about a contrasting portrayal of space along with the “illusionistic presentation of objects” (Kleiner & Mamiya, 2006, p.458). Various forms of perspectives employed in paintings inlcude linear perspective, aerial perspective, and the use of perspective to transform the art plane into a transitional object. Thesis Statement: The purpose of this paper is to critically review the literature on the kinds of meaning made possible by the use of perspective in paintings. DISCUSSION Linear perspective The most common manifestation is the linear perspective. In this type, “all parallel lines or surface edges converge on one, two or three vanishing points located with reference to the eye-level of the viewer” (Kleiner & Mamiya, 2006, p.874), which is the horizon line of the picture. Associated parts of the painting are depicted in smaller size, portraying increasing distance from the viewer. Linear perspective clearly defines a physical point of view, showing the “location, vantage and orientation of the viewer” (Cartage.org, 2002) as accurately as it depicts the physical form of the objects in view, in the composition. Linear perspective is one of the significant innovations of European art, with a great impact on the visual arts in the west from the 15th to the 19th centuries. Perspective in visual arts provides perception of the scene from a single, fixed viewpoint. It is created by various techniques. Parallel lines converge as they go further away from the viewer, objects become smaller as they recede into the distance, and in the far background colours look less intense and gain a bluish tinge (Gibson,1978). Figure 1. Linear Perspective Using Converging Lines (Cartage.org, 2002) In Figure 1. above, the converging lines formed by the intersecting lines on the surface of the ground, the horizontal lines of the buildings in rows, and the visual angles at which the buildings are placed in the composition, contribute to the illusion of space and depth. Integrative and multi-point perspectives occur as from a corner view of a building instead of a front view, as on the right in Figure 1. above (Cartage.org, 2002). On the other hand, Harrison and Wood (2003, p.318) oppose the perspectival representation of space, which they consider to be “a rigid three-dimensional view of the world based on the laws of Euclidean geometry”. The authors state that by using perspective as a key concept in paintings, the world is confined to a cubic box, and seen as a pyramidal form within the picture plane. Thus, the apex of the visual cone is either in the viewer’s eye, in front of the object, or it is projected to the horizon, behind the object. The former approach is used in the East and the latter in the West, both of which limit and confine space to a finite visual area. During the Renaissance between the 14th to the 17th centuries, the concept of perspective was first used as a key element by artists, in an intellectual and aesthetic manner. The aesthetic functions of perspective included rationalizing the representation of space; thus elaborate group scenes could be organized in a spatially complex manner. Secondly, perspective helped Renaissance artists to produce a compelling illusion of depth. Further, perspective provided the means to draw the viewer’s eye to the key figure or main action in the painting (Kubovy, 1988), as seen in Masaccio’s The Tribute Money seen in Figure 2. below (WGA, 2010). Figure 2. The Tribute Money by Masaccio (1426-1427) (WGA, 2010) In The Tribute Money above, the slanting lines represent the horizontal features of the building seen as receding into the distance. They are known as orthogonals since they depict lines in the scene that are perpendicular to the picture plane. The orthogonals converge at the vanishing point in this construction of perspective, which is just to the right of Christ’s head. This technique draws attention to the central actor in the drama, represented by Christ, as portrayed by Masaccio (Kubovy, 1988). According to WGA (2010) the scene in The Tribute Money represents Jesus and the Apostles’ arrival in Capernaum, as given in Matthew’s Gospel. The artist Masaccio has incorporated the three different events in the story in the same scene. Jesus’ response to the tax collector’s request, by indicating to Peter on how the required money should be procured; on the left is Peter catching the fish in Lake Genezaret, and extracting the coin; and to the right Peter stands in front of his house, handing over the tribute money to the tax collector. This depiction emphasizes the validity of the tax collector’s request, during the tax reforms controversy in Florence. Italian painters of the Renaissance extensively used geometric lines in simple parallel perspective, with only one vanishing point. One of the merits of this method is that “its strong horizontal lines and rectangular faces seen head on stabilize the composition and conform well with the frame” (Wright, 1983, p.82). However, this can be detrimental to the overall design, dictating the placing of figures in regimented rows. Even in floor patterns, diagonal lines are absent. Interiors views based on the one-point formula are found to resemble stage sets, often cluttered with props not relevant to the composition. Example: Figure 3. below of the painting Annunciation by Crivelli (1486). Figure 3. Annunciation with St. Emidius by Carlo Crivelli (1486) (Olga’s Gallery, 2009) In the Annunciation by Crivelli (Figure 3.) above, perspective is a predominant part of the composition, which is already an unresolved duality, divided by a centre line. One half appears to show skill in depicting depth of perspective through objects receding into the distance, while the other half displays protruding objects. “The insistent vanishing lines draw the eye away from the main subject” (Wright, 1983, p.82). The Annunciation depicts the announcement by the archangel Gabriel sent by God, to Mary, that she was to give birth to Jesus who will be great and would be known as the son of God. The architecture is plausibly portrayed, though grotesque and has a sharp realism which contrasts with the mystical subject matter, creating an almost surrealistic effect. The religious and social meanings that perspective was charged with in the early Renaissance paintings are no longer seen in contemporary art. Elkins (1994, p.2) supports this view, stating that “the founding of modernism was bound up with a rejection of perspective”, and later postmodern developments again marginalised perspective. On the other hand, it is argued that modernism is based on the continual innovation of post-Renaissance art, where perspective played a significant role. However, Rauschenbach (1985) emphasizes the existence of different variations in perspective seen from the same point. All perspectives are equivalent, that is, containing an equal sum of distortions of visual perception. In the geometrical reproduction of spatial planes, particularly of an interior space, the author states that there is no “ideal” perspective; moreover, the Renaissance perspective cannot be used as a benchmark for the accurate perspective, since it is only one of the variants. Rauschenbach (1982) developed a system of perspective that includes the effects produced by the brain, in addition to the visual properties of the human eye. This is known as perceptual perspective, and is considered to represent visual perception in a more comprehensive manner than geometrical or linear perspective. “Renaissance perspective was introduced earlier than the other variants of perceptual perspective, probably because it is the simplest (though far from the best) variant of perceptual perspective” (Rauschenbach, 1982, p.32). The author analysed Paul Cezanne’s (1839-1906) landscapes as a demonstration of the artist’s intuitive employment of perceptual perspective, thereby explaining rationally the geometrical oddities noted in his paintings. Cezanne used a range of colours and intensity to create depth in his landscapes. From his flat shapes on the surface of the picture plane, instead of linear perspective emerged more unusual artistic innovations such as cubism (Schapiro, 1962). Figure 4. Mont Sainte Victoire seen from the Bibemus Quarry (c.1897 by Paul Cezanne (Ione, 2000, p.65) Despite the use of flat shapes in several of Cezanne’s compositions, it is believed that pictorial depth is evident in the artist’s works (Figure 4.) through the technique of compensation of volumes, in an interaction of three-dimensionality with the two dimensions of the picture plane (Loran, 2006). It is essential to note that the artist’s depiction of timelessness includes the paradoxes of change and solidity, flexibility and order. Thus, he achieved a “synthesis of change and permanence, two identical sides of the same visible manifestation” (Becks-Malorny, 2001, p.73). In Cezanne’s paintings of Mont Sainte-Victoire, the mountain is the dominant motif of the grand landscape. Aerial perspective This is also known as atmospheric perspective. In this type, the illusion of distance in the picture is created by decreasing color intensity, changing color to an almost neutral blue, “and the blurring of contours as the intended distance between eye and object increases” (Kleiner & Mamiya, 2006, p.874). Figure 5. below shows the painting of a rainbow landscape by Peter Paul Reubens, created in 1636-1637. Here the view is panoramic because the viewer is provided with a perspective of miles of countryside stretching into the distance. The spectator’s position is in the centre, as if they were “standing above the landscape on raised ground” (Acton, 1997, p.37). According to Huhn et al (2009), focalization is the perspective in a composition as presented to the spectator, from the personal viewpoint of the artist. In this aerial view linear perspective is used with the converging lines of direction starting from the corners of the composition. The lines act as focalizers, receding to a vanishing point on the horizon, behind the trees on the right, which grow smaller in size as the recede into the background. The feeling of prolonged withdrawal of the trees and other elements in the picture is further created by the use of diagonal lines “from the upper corners of the picture down through the sky, above the trees on the left and and over the top of the wooded area on the right” (Acton, 1997, p.37). Figure 5. The Rainbow Landscape by Peter Paul Reubens (1636-1637) (TopofArt 2009) One hundred years before the artist Reubens, Leonardo invented “aerial perspective”, a device that “created an illusion of greater depth than could be achieved by linear perspective alone” (Acton, 1997, p.37). In the composition Figure 5. above, the hills in the far distance are depicted using a cool blue which emphasizes the receding hilly region in the background. The middle part of the view is green, while the foreground is a warm brown in ochre shade. This warm color is in the front of the composition, close to the spectator, the green moves back in the image, and the blue recedes into the far distance. Thus the effect of space is emphasized by the tones of the colours used, with dark shades in the foreground, and pastel tints in the background. It is important to note that the light effects in the painting play a crucial role. Its dramatic contrasts are seen in the middle distance, creating an atmosphere similar to that of a rainbow. “The light and dark areas move in zig-zag fashion around the planes and emphasize the recession” (Acton, 1996, p.37). The contrasts enhance the drama by making the eye move from light to dark and from one area of the composition to another in quick succession. This contributes to an interesting contrast between the weather effects happening in the front and the middle of the image, and the calmer atmosphere created in the background, using lighter tones. The dark shadows under the trees create an illusion of mystery and spaces beyond the spectator’s view. However, the centers of attention are created by the areas lit up by light. Further, there is an effective creation of a sense of space behind the picture plane, which illusion is slightly lessened by the figures walking in the front and the haycart entering from the left of the composition. The details pertaining to the figures and the foliage in the foreground are considerably greater than those of the elements in the background. The panoramic wide-angled view is due to the horizontal rectangular shape of the picture. The spatial illusion gives an extensive sense of scale. The Baroque period of the seventeenth century was the main era during which the creation of spatial illusion developed to a high level of sophistication, as seen in the painting by Reubens. Zoltan (2007) states that an integration of sensory perceptions takes place, in the visual assimilation of perception in visual arts. Perspective Transforms the Painting into a Transitional Object Rene Magritte’s painting La Condition Humaine (The Human Condition) seen below in Figure 6. is displayed as an easel placed inside a room, in front of a window. The easel holds an unframed painting which depicts the portion of the landscape seen outside the window. This art work is one of Magritte’s earliest treatments in his genre of window paintings, subtly stating a profound meaning (NGA, 2010). Figure 6. La Condition Humaine by Rene Magritte (1933) (NGA, 2010) It is argued that it is untrue that the landscape outside the window is real, while the painting on the easel reflects that reality. In fact, both the imagery or actual landscape as well as the artist’s creation of its perspective are a part of the same artwork. Thus, the viewer’s cyclical perception one as real and the other as representation is the basis of the painting’s title as The Human Condition (NGA, 2010). Magritte’s painting raises questions about the location of perception and thought in the picture plane as compared to the actual perspective of the landscape. Scholars (Wargo, 2003) have interpreted the painting through D.W. Winnicot’s psychoanalytic theory of object-relations which illuminates the concept of “transitional phenomena”. La Condition Humaine both negates and affirms the opaque quality of the picture plane. The use of perspective transforms the painting into a transitional object “that is both ‘there’ and ‘not there’ simultaneously” (Wargo, 2003, p.47); it is opaquely representing the portion of nature seen outside, as well as transparently permitting a view of the scenery outside the window. This is a form of play denoting a search for autonomy and ontological security, a philosophical reference to the essence of being or existence. This is Albertian perspective based on object-relating. Thus, Magritte’s ambiguous spaces denotes the known, and also has possibilities for further inferences; the painting reveals traditions of Renaissance perspective as well as the aesthetic of the sublime. The modern concept of perspective is considered to be a formal and defined branch of mathematics, emerging from Cartesian and Euclidean geometry. It is stated to be “meaningless” since this perspective refers to equations, and geometric functions such as lines, angles and points. On the other hand, the common type of perspective with which people view the world, and understand themselves as viewing subjects, has great meaning. It encompasses subjectivity, eternity and concepts from various academic domains. This is termed as “metaphorical perspective” by Elkins (1994, p.6). CONCLUSION This paper has highlighted the significance of perspective in paintings, and critically analysed the views expressed by various authors, some of whom have argued against the use of perspective in art. The various meanings and attributes of the concept, in relation to linear perspective, aerial perspective, integrative perspective which combines linear with aerial view, centers of attention, focalizers, and transforming the art plane into a transitional object through the use of perspective have been examined. It was found that all these different aspects play an important part, singly or in combination of two or more of the elements, to produce meanings of space and depth in paintings. Linear perspective using parallel lines converging at the far distance, is the basic technique of creating an illusion of space and an impression of vastness in visual art. Aerial perspective in a composition is generally an integration of different techniques, in which linear perspective plays an essential role. Moreover, the view point being at a higher level, the angle of perspective is important. Generally, the objects in the painting are portrayed with the upper parts clearly visible, and with less-visible, fore-shortened lower parts. Perspective is also created by the appropriate modulation of colors and tones, contrasting light and dark effects, shadows and lit areas as well as diminishing sizes of objects to portray them receding into the distance. Unlike Renaissance art, contemporary art does not emphasize on perspective. However, perspective forms an inherent part of any painting depicting visual dimension, and various techniques help to create the illusion of space and depth. BIBLIOGRAPHY Acton, M. (1997). Learning to look at paintings. New York: Routledge. Becks-Malorny, Ulrike. Paul Cezanne, 1839-1906: Pioneer of modernism. The United Kingdom: Taschen Publications. (2001). Cartage.org. (2002). Perspective in painting: Basics of perspective. Retrieved on 4th August, 2010 from: http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Arts/painting/principl-tech/pers-paint/basic-pers/basicpers.htm Elkins, J. (1994). The poetics of perspective. The United States of America: Cornell University Press. Gibson, J.J. (Summer 1978). The ecological approach to the visual perception of pictures. Leonardo, 11 (3): pp.227-235. Harrison, C. & Wood, P. (2003). Art in theory, 1900-2000: An anthology of changing ideas. Edition 2. 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