Reciprocity and Extensive Reading - Assignment Example

? In the survey of EFL teachers, Nunan (1993: 133 -158) found the biggest challenges in the EFL room to be lack of motivation, getting to speak, and the use of first language. In spoken discourse, the problem of getting students to talk is very evident particularly in L2 classes. The demand and the challenge lie on what kind of activities teachers design for L2 classes. Activities designed for language classes particularly in speaking class must enable learners to maximize their speaking potentials. When teaching speaking skills, EFL teachers need to be particularly adept at organizing class activities that are authentic, motivating, and varied. The use of authentic, engaging materials should be the basis for class activity (Murcia 2006: 110). Authenticity is a term that loosely implies as close to approximation as possible to the world outside the classroom, in the selection of both language materials and of the activities and methods used for practice in the classroom (McDonough and Shaw 2003:40). Further, problems arise because of classroom methods and materials used in the classroom. Although language teachers have the same goal – to enable learners to use the target language proficiently whether in academic, personal, or professional life, it is not unusual for teachers to report a sense of isolation from colleagues in other countries (McDonough and Shaw: 1). As what Richards (1983: 219 - 239) reminds us, the current state of English has turned a significant percentage of the world’s population into part-time users of English. Thus, experts all over the world have developed strategies and approaches to language teaching that would best address the problems on L2 learning and teaching. One of the outcomes of the Communicative Language Teaching is interactive listening and speaking: negotiating Meaning through Questioning-Answering Routines. This is also known as reciprocal teaching (Murcia 2006:13-27). The concept of Reciprocal Teaching is based on the concept of Reciprocity. In communication, there is what we call taking-turns. A variety of question-types can be used: repetition, paraphrasing, verification, clarification, elaboration, extension, and challenge. Reciprocal Teaching or RT is a strategy that attempts to establish an active and relatively expanded dialog between teacher and students and among students themselves (Izquiendo 2004: 20-25). Paliscar and Brown (1984: 117-175) developed this strategy to reinforce comprehension in L1 and the reading classes. According to Izquiendo (2004: 20-25), when RT is used, the classroom is not a one way street, in which the teacher maintains strict control of the environment, but rather, a two-way street that allows active participation by students. The teacher serves as a facilitator or monitor. Reciprocity is manifested in Reciprocal Teaching (RT) because it promotes the teacher-student (T-S), student-teacher (S-T), and student – student (S-S) exchange (Izquiendo 2004:20-25). One example to show this is when the teacher asks a student to recite and when the student has recited, the teacher calls on another student to repeat through paraphrasing what his or her classmates just mentioned. The concept here is to allow students to listen well during class discussion because at any point in time, the teacher may call one to elaborate or challenge the statements given by a classmate. In RT, there is what we call, short-term and long term exchanges. A short-turn is often referred to as language for informational purposes while long-turn is often referred to as language for transactional purposes (Brown and Yule 1983a). The same authors stress that training students to produce short-turns “will not automatically field students who can perform satisfactorily in long turns. The point is, teachers should do all they can to encourage students to produce complete sentences and long utterances. This is supported by the survey conducted by Ferris and Tagg (1996: 31 - 55) conducted among university faculty which suggest that, in general, what academic ESL students need most in extensive authentic practice in class participation, such as taking part in discussions, interacting with peers and professors, and asking-answering questions. As Widdowson (1978::58-61) as quoted by McDonough and Shaw (2003:134), comment: what is said is dependent on an understanding of what else has been said in the interaction; and it is in the reciprocal exchange pattern which becomes important for learners to be exposed to and to practice various stages of these foreign language careers. In recent teaching materials, a lot of attention has been paid to designing activities that focus on tasks mediated-through language or that involved the negotiation and sharing of information to the participants. The idea behind this thinking is that learners should be provided with the opportunity to use the language they are learning in meaningful activities they feel motivated to talk about (McDonough and Shaw 2003:135). This is exactly why experts in English language teaching are pushing for the use of authentic materials in designing tasks. Nunan (2004:4) defined pedagogical task as a piece of classroom work that involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is focused on mobilizing their grammatical knowledge in order to express meaning and in which the intention is to convey meaning rather than to manipulate form. This concept of tasks by David Nunan enables second language learners and teachers to have meaningful exchanges which would guarantee enhancement particularly in speaking and listening because its main concern is to convey meaning rather than concentrating on form. Breen(1984:3-15) as quoted by Nunan (2004:3), suggests that teachers place communication at the center of the curriculum goal the goal (individuals who are capable of communicating in the target language) and the means (classroom procedures that develop this capability) begin to merge: learners learn to communicate by communicating. Thus, if Reciprocity through Reciprocal Teaching is practiced in the classroom, by allowing the learners to use the target language in paraphrasing and reported speech for example, we are able to produce learners who are able to use the target language in communication because we allowed them to communicate. The practice is done inside the classroom, yet, by the use of authentic materials, students can easily relate to discussions because the subject matter or idea it is basically what they come to face-to-face every day. Learner-centeredness has been an influential concept in language pedagogy for many years (Nunan 2004:14). If you take a look at the concept of Reciprocity, the teacher serves only as a facilitator and concentrates more on the input of the learners. The Communicative Language Approach supports this notion. Speaking in a second or foreign language has often been viewed as the most demanding of the four skills (Bailey and Savage 1994:114). In addition, a number of features that interact to make speaking as challenging a language skill as it is (Brown 1994). Perhaps the most difficult aspect of spoken English is that it is almost accomplished via interaction with at least one other speaker. This means that a variety of demands are in place at once: monitoring and understanding the other speaker(s), thinking about one’s own contribution, producing that contribution, monitoring it’s effect and so on (Murcia 2004:198). But what are learners’ speaking needs? As a skill that enables us to produce utterances, when genuinely communicative, speaking is desire-and – purpose driven. In other words, we genuinely want to communicate something to achieve a particular end. This may involve expressing ideas and opinions; expressing a wish or to desire to do something; negotiating and/or solving a particular problem; or establishing and maintaining social relationships and friendships. To achieve these speaking purposes, we need to achieve a range of appropriate expressions (McDonough and Shaw 2003:134). Achieving a wide range of appropriate expressions enable learners to actively express themselves in speaking as well as listening activities. In order to articulate themselves and put across their varied ideas, by constantly allowing themselves to learn more about language, the process of reciprocity can take place at any given time in classroom tasks. (McDonough and Shaw 2003:134). In addition, Nunan (2004:56) identified several task types in his book, Task-Based Language Teaching: question and answers, dialogues and role-plays, pictures and picture stories, puzzles and problems, discussions and decisions, and communication strategies. Under communication strategies, these are activities designed to encourage learners to practice communication strategies such as paraphrasing, borrowing or inventing words, using gestures, asking for feedback and simplifying. Thus, it is important to note the importance of communicative listening in order to give ideal feedback so the process of reciprocity is manifested. Listening, along with reading, has been considered a passive skill (Murcia 2004:69-87). However, Anderson and Lynch (1988:1322-1340) reject conceptualization of listening as a passive act calling it as a “listener-as-tape-recorder” explanation. They argue that such a perspective fails to account for the interpretations listeners make as they hear the spoken text according to their own purposes for listening and their own store of background knowledge. Related to this, Murcia (2004:73) enumerated the three modes of listening: bidirectional, unidirectional, and autodirectional. Among these three modes of listening, bidirectional listening mode relates significantly to reciprocity. The reciprocal speech chain of speaker/listener is easily observed (Denes and Pinson 1963 as quoted by Murcia 2004:81). Two or more participants take turns exchanging speaker role and listener role as they engage in face-to-face or telephone verbal interaction. The inputs of unidirectional listening mode, on the other hand, comes from a variety of sources: overheard conversations, public address, announcements, recorded messages (including those on telephone answering machines), the media, instructional situations of all kinds, and public performances. As we hear speakers but are unable to interact, we often talk to ourselves in a reactive or self-dialogue manner as we analyze what we hear. We may sub-vocalize or even vocalize these responses (Murcia 2004:73). Second and foreign language learners need to have instruction and practice in both bidirectional communicative listening mode and in the unidirectional mode (Murcia 2004:73). Further, in interactive listening and speaking, the focus of the outcome is on both the product of transmitting information and the process of negotiating meaning in interactive reciprocal listener/speaker exchanges (Murcia 2004: 73). In an example she gave, initially in small-groups, one student can give a brief presentation such as short set of locally relevant announcements, a give-minute “how to” talk, a personal story or anecdote, or an explanatory talk using visual aids. Here, each listener is required to ask at least one question in a questioning/answering routine. At first, listeners can be given a card listing a question type assigned the responsibility for asking that kind of question. The listener-questioner must continue with follow-up questions as necessary until both participants are satisfied that clear meaning has been negotiated (Murcia 2004:73). This is a clear example of Reciprocity. Students take turns in negotiating meaning and they themselves take charge of classroom tasks using the target language in communication. The teacher exemplifies his or her role as moderator. Listening comprehension, then, is not only a function of the interplay between language, on the one hand, and what the brain does with it on the other. It also requires the activation of contextual information and previous knowledge (McDonough and Shaw 2003:115-132). G. White (1998:87-92) as quoted by McDonough and Shaw (2003:115-132) list all the following sub-skill that go to make up the overall skill of listening: perception skill, language skill, knowledge of the world, dealing with information, and interacting with a speaker. In conclusion, Reciprocity as manifested in Reciprocal Teaching can pave ways to maximize students’ skills in speaking and listening. ESL and EFL teachers have several responsibilities with respect to the listening skill. First: they must understand the pivotal role that listening plays in the language learning process in order to utilize listening in ways that facilitate learning. Second, they must understand the complex interactive nature of the listening process and the different kinds of listening that learners must to in order to provide their students with an appropriate variety and range of listening experiences (Murcia 2006:84). Oral skills are not only critical for communication in ESL classroom, they are necessary for communication in, and with, the English-speaking world. As a result, all ESL/EFL teachers will want to do whatever they can to promote the development of speaking, listening, and pronunciation skills among students (Murcia 2006:103-115). BIBLIOGRAPHY Anderson, A. and T. Lynch. 1988. Listening. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 1322-1340. Bailey, K.M. and L. Savage, eds. 1994. New ways of teaching speaking. Alexandria, VA: TESOL. p. 114. Breen,R. 1994. Contemporary paradigm in syllabus design. London: Modern English Publications/The British Council. pp.3, 8, 15, 67 Brown, H. D. 1994. Teaching by principles: an interactive approach to language Pedagogy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Regents. pp. 147-172 Celce-Murcia, M. 2006.Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. Singapore: Heinle and Heinle.pp. 13-27,69-87,73, 84, 103-115. Ferris,D. and T. Tagg. 1996. Academic oral communication needs of EAP learners: What subject matter instructors actually acquire. TESOL quarterly 30: 31-35. Izquierdo, F. 2004. Reciprocal Teaching: A Useful Tool in Increasing Student Talking Time. English Teaching Forum. p. 20-25. McDonough, J. and Shaw, C. (2003). Materials and methods in ELT. Australia: Blackwell Publishing. pp.1, 40, 115-132, 134-135. Nunan, D. 2004. Task-Based Language Teaching. U.K.: University of Cambridge Press. pp. 3, 4, 14, 133-158. Richards, J.C. 1983. Listening comprehension: approach, design, procedure. TESOL. Quarterly. 17: pp. 219 – 239. White, R. V. 1995. New ways in teaching writing. Alexandria, VA: TESOL Widdowson,H. G. 1978. Teaching language at communication. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 47-61. The term extensive reading is credited to Harold Palmer (1917: 137) who proposed that learners should read one book after another. The idea of reading a great number of reading materials over time to improve reading proficiency is based on the belief that language acquisition, especially vocabulary development, occurs through reading (Nagy & Herman 1987: 20). Supporters of extensive reading believe that the more reading experiences language learners have, the more adept they will be in the target language. In particular, Grabe and Stoller (2002: 90) believe that although extensive reading alone cannot guarantee language proficiency, the latter cannot occur without extensive reading. Related to this, one does not become a good reader unless one reads a lot (Murcia 2006:187). Reading cannot be considered fun for many ESL learners. At some point, language experts blame the scarcity of a wide range of selection of reading materials. In order to for students to be motivated to reader, they should be given varied materials that are of their interests. There are five popular types of reading: skimming, scanning, light reading, academic reading, and extensive reading. Skimming is a technique where a reader goes over a text to get the gist. Scanning, on the other hand, is going over a text only to find specific information. Light reading takes place when we read novels. Academic reading takes place using text from the different disciplines studied in school. Lastly is extensive reading. Extensive reading is the practice of reading large amounts of text for extended periods of time. Extensive reading should be a central component of any course with the goal of building academic reading abilities (Murcia 2006:198). As we all know, the rigorous task of academic life is not complete without a large volume of reading materials. These materials provide almost all the necessary information about a subject matter and from these materials, a teacher can facilitate discussion with the learners. Grabe (1991:375-406) identified six general component skills and knowledge areas in the complex reading process: 1. Automatic recognition skills; 2. Vocabulary and structural knowledge; 3. Formal discourse structure knowledge; 4. Content/world background knowledge; 5. Synthesis and evaluation; and, 6. Metacognitive knowledge and skills monitoring. Much of the current thinking on reading tends to focus primarily on the purpose of the activity; even if reading is done for pleasure it is still purposeful (McDonough and Shaw 2003: 95). Related to this, Williams (1984:265 as quoted by McDonough and Shaw 2003:90), usually clarifies reading into: a. getting general information from the text, b. getting specific information from a text, and c. for pleasure or for interest. Rivers and Temperley (1978:187) list the following examples of some of the reasons that L2 students may need or want to read: To obtain information for some purpose or because we are curious about some topic; To obtain instruction on how to perform some task for our work or daily life; To keep in touch with friends by correspondence or to understand business letters; To know when or where something will take place or what is available; To know what is happening or has happened (as reported in newspapers, magazines, reports) For enjoyment or excitement Although the reasons for reading vary from learner to learner and the aim may vary from teacher to teacher, the essential purpose of all reading generally is to get new information and/or for pleasure, not to go over what is known already or what is inconsequential to the reader in the first place (McDonough and Shaw 2003:90). Further, Pugh (1978:519) shows how efficient readers ‘switch’ styles according to the type of text they are reading. It is, therefore, important to match reading skill to reading purpose. Skilled readers scan to locate specific information in a text and skim to extract general information from it. Skimming and scanning are useful strategies for learners to operate (McDonough and Shaw 2003:96). Experienced readers can easily locate information that they may need in a given text and hardly exert effort in reading. However, classroom teachers often complain that students view reading as tedious and therefore low priority simply because they do not feel challenged or involved in the text (McDonough and Shaw 2003:99). This is for the reason that some students may be too familiar with the given text or simply not their interest. Ur (1996:84) suggests various criteria that distinguish efficient from inefficient readers: efficient readers can access content easier by changing reading speed according to text, they can select significant features of a text and skim the rest, they can guess or infer meaning from context, they think ahead by predicting outcomes, they use background knowledge to help understand the meaning, they are motivated to read the text as they see it as a challenge. The problem of inefficient readers will eventually affect the challenge that comes with extensive reading. But the problem does not only lies on learners but also on the part of teachers. Extensive reading typically is not promoted in L2 reading courses because: Teachers sometimes do not feel that they are teaching when students are reading silently in class; They think that extensive reading is something that should only be done at home; Sometimes, there are limited resources but they do not include books that interest students or they do not allow students to check out books to be read at home. There are cases in which teachers do not believe that reading large amounts of level-appropriate is an appropriate goal for academic reading environment; Finally, some teachers would like to involve their students in extensive reading but do not know how to incorporate it in their lesson (McDonough and Shaw 2003:89-114). The amount of reading materials assigned by a language teacher has a direct impact on students. Somehow, some language teachers usually assign the reading of the materials at home so that each student will be ready for the discussion for next meeting. This is particularly so because there is no unlimited time in their reading courses to promote as much extensive reading as should occur (McDonough and Shaw:89-114). Thus, language teachers would prefer other strategies in reading like scheming and scanning because it could be done inside the classroom and easily incorporated in the subject matter discussed in class. One direct method used in reading classes is the use of schema theory. Bartlett (1932:78) first used this particular term to explain how the knowledge we have about the world is organized into interrelated patterns based on our previous knowledge and experience. These ‘schemata’ also allow us to predict what may happen. Brown and Yule (1983: 147), McCarthy and Carter (1994:69), Cook (1999:140) and Nunan (1999:334-337), all provide accounts on how this background knowledge can influence the comprehension process. Clearly, it can sometimes be based on previous knowledge of similar texts. When schema comes into play among learners, some may feel isolated from the topic prevalent in the text. This may eventually happen to those who have no previous experience with the background given in the text. So, teachers will have to make semantic mapping in order for the others to understand and connect well with the idea discussed in the text. As what Nunan (1999:334-337) writes, “we interpret what we read in terms of what we already know, and we integrate what we already know with the content of what we are reading.” Weaver (1994:70) divides the approaches to divides these approaches into two larger categories: 1. Part-centered (also called code-emphasis or bottom up) approaches which viewed reading instruction as moving from learning the ‘parts’ and building into ‘whole’; Socio-linguistic (also called meaning-emphasis or top-down) approaches, which emphasize the overall construction of meaning from connected or whole texts, and draw on the readers’ and writers’ schemata and personal experiences. Under the socio-linguistic approach to teaching reading, there is what we call the teaching of phonics where generally involve teaching students the sound-letter relationship used in reading and writing (McDonough and Shaw:89-114). This is a sub-skill related to reading since learners are able to identify through speaking by reading words that may have the same sound-ending. On the other hand, the linguistic approach to teaching reading utilizes a scientific knowledge of language and exposes children to certain carefully selected words containing popular spelling patterns so they can infer letter-sound relationships in those words thus aiding students also in their speaking skill (McDonough and Shaw: 89-114). Murcia (2006:198) shares ideal conditions for extensive reading: 1. Provide time for extended silent reading in every class session, even if it only involves reading from the textbook; 2. Create opportunities for all types of reading; 3. Find out what students like to read and why; 4. Make interesting, attractive, and level-appropriate reading materials available; 5. Build a well-stocked, diverse class library with clear indications of topic; 6. Allow students to take books and magazines to read, and hold students accountable for at home reading in some simple way; 7. Create incentives for students to read at home; 8. Have students share and recommend reading materials to classmates; 9. Keep records of the amounts of extensive reading completed by students; 10. Seek out class sets of text that everyone can read and discuss; 11. Make use of graded readers, provided that they interest students, are attractive, create sufficient challenge, and offer good amount of extensive reading practice; 12. Read interesting materials aloud to students on a consistent basis; 13. Visit the school library regularly and set aside time for browsing and reading; 14. Create a reading lab and designate time for lab activities. There are several problems that come along the ideal conditions for extensive reading. First, as mentioned by McDonough and Shaw (2003:89) as previously presented in this paper, there is a problem on the limited supply of reading texts in most schools. If there are more than enough, most of it have become too familiar among learners, thus, their motivation for reading can slow down. Another problem is the assigning of reading materials to be read at home. Some students may choose to do some other chores at home that doing the assigned reading because the absence of the teacher. There are a number of specific instructional practices to consider when engaging students in extensive reading. In class, extensive reading is most carried out by giving students 10-15 minutes of silent reading time. During this time, students may read a class reader; read a book or magazine of their choice (Murcia 2006:199). Another way is to engage in sustained silent reading (SSR). In SSR, the teacher does not circulate, rather he/she reads silently throughout the entire SSR period, serving as a role model of an engaged reader. After an uninterrupted SSR, the teacher and students should take a minute or two to share ideas or make recommendations about their reading. In SSR period, there should be no evaluation, no instruction, and no interruptions (Murcia 2006:199) This is in direct contrast with what have been previously practiced in class. Grabe (2001:375) share some writing activities that can be developed from reading: students can keep journals wherein reactions to reading are recommended and elaborated upon. Teachers collect journals periodically and add comments. In addition, students can write an explanation or critique of the readings, and students create graphic organizers to identify main ideas from the text, restructure information, or compare content from various text. In my own view based from the implications of SSR by Murcia, problem arises when there is no evaluation done, teachers cannot expect learners to give importance to what they are actually reading, unless, reading becomes a habit which is one goal of extensive reading. Extensive reading aims to make reading occur naturally among learners. As opposed to the SSR, Nuttall (1996:519) identifies five basic question types commonly used for reading. The first of these is literal comprehension. By this she means that if readers do not understand the literal meaning of a particular text, they are probably not going to get very much else out from that text. The second is reorganizing or putting the information in the text into a different order. Thirdly comes inferring or reading between the lines. Question-types requiring a measure of personal response are often to be found in literary passages where the reader has to argue for a particular response supported by reference to the text. Lastly, questions of evaluation would require a reader to assess how effectively the writer conveyed her intention. Teachers, therefore, should find a good way in which to encourage learners to do extensive reading, although, they will not be evaluated based on the reader assigned. There are more than one ways enumerated by Murcia (2006:199), first is by selecting a text that is of interest among students. This way, it is easier on the part of the teacher to encourage students to undergo extensive reading because they will eventually learn more about their interest although evaluation will not be made. Another way of encouraging learners is to provide varied and diverse topics for the assigned reader but it has to be within the range of students’ abilities. Also by assigning a concrete schedule dedicated for extensive reading. Teachers also need to understand that extensive reading is not an occasional end-of-the-week, or end-of-the-day “reward”. It is fundamental to the development of fluent reading activities (Murcia 2006:200). The discussion for assigned reader can be lengthened in order to facilitate better understanding of the text read. This can be done when there is a concrete schedule dedicated for extensive reading done inside the classroom. The teacher must give more than enough time for the students to read and understand the text, and, at the same time, provide enough time for discussion. What I could suggest when time is limited, teachers usually assign the text to be read at home and discussed in class. It is important to give questions in advance that would serve as guides for the students when they will be doing the reading at home. These questions will serve prompts. The questions must be designed to prompt the learners of important events in the text assigned to them. In conclusion, the extensive reading approach is way to teach reading without the hassles. As discussed in this paper, the main purpose of a reading class is to emphasize the love for reading, which consequents the need to read and be informed in many aspects of life. Ideally, in an extensive reading class, students should not feel vexed or stressed to think that they will need to answer exercises on grammar and vocabulary. Rather, each meeting will be spent on reading and discussing about the materials they have read and their progress in reading. Considering the advantages of extensive reading approach in terms of language acquisition, teachers of EFL or ESOL should manage to incorporate the approach in their teaching both for intermediate and higher intermediate classes (Nunan 1989: 60; Grellet 1981: 7; Aebersold & Field 1997: 46) In addition, to maximize the benefits of the approach, teachers should give students access to a wide variety of materials that could promote reading proficiency. Extensive reading at school, therefore, should be coupled with extensive reading at home, with as much reading as students be persuaded to do (Murcia 2006:200). Only then we could produce good readers. BIBLIOGRAPHY Aebersold, J. & Field, M. (1997). From reader to reading teacher: issues and strategies for second language classrooms. Cambridge: CUP. p. 46 Bartlett, F. C. (1932). Remembering: A study in experimental and social psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 78. Brown and Yule (1983). Discourse analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 147 - 142 Carter, R. and M. McCarthy B. 1995. Grammar and the spoken language. Applied Linguistics. pp. 69 Celce-Murcia, M. 2006.Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. Singapore: Heinle and Heinle.pp. 187,198, 200. Cook, V. 1999. Going beyond the native speaker in language teaching. TESOL. Quarterly 33: pp. 185-209 Grabe, W. 1991. Current developments in second language reading research. TESOL. Quaterly. 25 (3): 375-406. Grabe, W. 2001. Reading writing relations. Theoretical perspectives and instructional Practices. Michigan: University of Michigan Press. pp. 153-160. Grellet, F. 1981. Developing reading skills. Cambridge: CUP. p.7 McCarthy, B. 1994. Grammar drills. What CALL can and cannot do. Paper presented at the EUROCALL Meeting. Karisruhe, Germany. p. 481 McDonough, J. and Shaw, C. 2003. Materials and Methods in ELT. Australia: Blackwell Publishing.pp 95. 90, 96, 99. Nagy, W.E and Herman, P.A. 1987. Breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge: Implications for acquisition and instruction in McKeown, M. and Curstis, M. (eds). The nature of vocabulary acquisition.. Hissdale, NJ: ErlBaum Associates 19-35. Nunan, D. 1989. Designing tasks for the communicative classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.p.60 Nunan, D. 1999. Second Language Teaching and Learning. Boston, Mass: Heinle and Heinle. p. 334-337. Nunan, D. 2004. Task-Based Language Teaching. U.K.: University of Cambridge Press. pp. 3,4, 56. Nuttal, C. 1996. Teaching reading skills in a foreign language. London: Heinemann, New edition.p. 519. Pugh, A.K. 1978. Silent reading. London: Longman. p. 519 Rivers, W. 1981. Teaching foreign language skills. 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 187 Ur, P. 1996. A course language teaching: practice and theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.p.78-84 Weaver, C. 1972. Human listening: processes and behavior. New York: Bobbs And Heinemann. P. 31 Williams, E. 1984.Reading in the Language Classroom. London: MacMillan. p.284. Read More