African Americans in the Twentieth Century - Coursework Example

?Focused Questions Focused Questions After the Second World War, there was a rapid increase in the black middle and their status. The 1960s saw the rise in the Black Arts Movement, which helped to bring about several cultural changes in the Black community. African Americans responded to these changes by trying to develop self-definition (Henderson, 2007). Living amongst this was the family of Cedric and Jerrel. Cedric and Jerrel were the only children of Leonard, a Pentecostal preacher, and Sophia, a licensed practical nurse. Jerrel was the older one. “Identical like twins my sweet pumpkins!”- their mother used to say adoringly. Growing up in the 60s and 70s transitioning era, Cedric and Jerrel saw the decades of struggle for Black rights and liberation yielding fruit. There were various changes that were happening. The Supreme Court passed a ruling that segregation of schools according to races was not constitutional; consequently significant desegregation of schools took place in the latter half of the 1960s. It was exciting for Jerrel and Cedric to befriend “the White people” and to be treated their equals. The young American African brothers were keen and witty and excelled academically. It was heartening for their parents to see the trend in the 1960s that greater number of Blacks was being enrolled in colleges. Jerrel and Cedric saw their elder cousins, and later on themselves, working their way through respectable colleges and getting good degrees (“Unrest in the State”, 1974). The Black middle-class family typically characterized of the husband, who had two jobs. If the wife was working, she was not given long maternity leaves after childbirth and had to come back to birth almost after it. Such was the case with Leonard and Sophia. Leonard was a preacher by profession but also used to work in a bakery in the evenings. The extra money that he made from the bakery was used both for small charity works that Leonard did and to provide for the family. Sophia had also been working since before she got married to Leonard. However being a Black, she had tougher work restrictions that her White colleagues. She was given shorter maternity leaves and often complained to her husband of workplace discrimination. Migration trends out of the South continued in the 1960s but the era also witnessed an increment in the relative wages of African American workers. At the start of the 1960s, the average African American with Bachelors received about 60% of the income of their White counterparts (Fuchs, 1990). The Civil Rights Act of 1964 is attributed to the gains in wages. Thereby, when Jerrel and Cedric entered professional lives, their mother would gloat with pride at the fact that her sons made a respectable living. The transitioning period of the 60s and 70s was characteristic of a rise in the life expectancy of Blacks and important antidiscrimination initiatives were also undertaken (Backend, 2010). Nevertheless, life for young black men was tough. Most were in prisons when they got their high school equivalency and the number of black men who went to college was significantly less than the number of black women (Welch, Gruhl, Comer & Rigdon, 2008). Despite the problems in the society, Jerrel and Cedric managed to stay out of prison and lead a relatively crime-free youth. Another change that was apparent in the second half of the 20th century was the increase in single-parent Black households. A phenomenon that was seen in African American households in the 1960s was fatherlessnesss. Female-headed households and illegitimacy, although common in the American society, became an accepted norm amongst the Black community (Committee on Appropriations United States Senate, 2005; Schumacher, 2008). Cedric and Jerrel’s family could not stay immune to it for long. However it was not because Leonard followed carnal desires as was common amongst married Blacks. He decided that he wanted to go on a preaching mission. He left his two sons and his wife with some of his savings and went out of the country for his religious calling. Their mother raised the two boys on her own for more than three years. It was a tough time for her. It was tough for Black middle class women like Sophia to work because there was a difference in the educational statuses of Black men and women before the 1960s. Women had two occupations to choose from: domestics or teaching. The average African American family thereby tried to provide educate to their girls so that they can enter a professional career. In contrast, Black males had greater range of occupational choices. Black males would earn more than females. Most families had a male breadwinner but in those where both men and women worked, men earned more than their wives. The differences in the number of Black men and women opting for high education were the direct opposite of the trend seen in White families. The Black man would earn more than his wife but the wife may have a higher-status job than his husband; this was in contrast to the Whites where men had both a higher-status job and higher incomes than their wives (Jewell, 1989). Sophia was lucky enough to have attended college and to become a LPN. The boys were six and seven when their father left. Before that, Sophia had not felt the relatively low pay she got since Leonard would provide for the whole family. However after her husband left, she was in dire need of money not only to feed and clothe herself and her children but also to pay for their education. Along with her nursing job, she started domestic jobs. A relatively affluent friend asked her to babysit and help her children in their homework for a few hours in the evening. In short, Cedric and Jerrel’s mother was able to earn enough to provide for the family. Almost three years after he left, Leonard came back, spiritually fulfilled but apologetic for leaving Sophia alone to raise the boys. Realizing that the boys needed him, Sophia did not make an issue out of the prolonged absence and accepted Leonard back into the family. In the 1960s, a significant proportion of the Black middle-class families moved to the suburbs- a trend that has been referred to as the black flight (Berube, 1994). There was a migration of Whites to suburbs with larger White communities whereas African Americans moved to White suburbs (Fauntroy, 1973). Although the majority was still Whites, the increasing concentration of Blacks in the inner cities was ascertained. The number of Blacks living in the urban core increased to almost 80% in 1960; this contributed to a decline in the inner city living standards (Harrell, Gaustad & Boles, 2005). A reason for the rise in the black flight to the suburbs was the better and reasonable housing available there. Seeing many of their friends and neighbors migrate out of Decatur, Leonard and Sophia also decided to step-up their lifestyles and move to a suburb. Family values were in-ground in Black communities, with interactions with, and dependency on, extended families much more common than their White counterparts (Committee on Appropriations United States Senate, 2005). Moreover, for the Black communities, family values inherently compromised of racial heritage and Sophia and Leonard used to educate their children about their racial heritage as well as religion (Otnes & Lowrey, 2004). In fact, Leonard being a Pentecostal preacher was staunch in his religious beliefs and was strict with his children when it came to religion. Sophia was also a practicing Christian. Jerrel and Cedric both grew up with the view implanted in them by their parents that music, cards, dancing etc were all abominations and works of the devil. However, when the brothers attended college and had a taste of freedom, they were spiritually deprogrammed. The time was also an awakening for Jerrel. Earlier in life, his parents had forbidden intimate interactions with girls since they regarded it to be wrong and he had never shown much interest in girls then. In college, while he dated girls and failed to find the satisfaction that he desired, he realized that he might have a same-sex orientation. Jerrel realized that he was gay! However, he could not tell his family about it. The Southern Baptist Church, of which his father was a strong believer, considers homosexuality a sin- an abomination in front of God. The Church supports the view that man and woman are supposed to fulfill the roles that have been ordained by nature i.e. to procreate. Any kind of sexual relations that exist beyond the heterosexual relationship has been clearly denunciated in the Bible (Holtzman, 2000). In the 1960s and 1970s, US went through a period of heightened awareness regarding LGBT. It was in the 1960s that gay rights advocates started building a social movement. Another reason that could have promoted an acceptance of homosexuality in the Black community is the Black Panther Party. The Party was particularly famous during this time and had a major influence on the Black community. The party was central to the Black freedoms struggle and supported the homosexual rights from the very start of the gay rights movement. The Party put gay rights on their 1970 agenda, which was a crucial factor in the acceptance of homosexuality amongst the Black community (“Huey P. Newton”, 2003). Many homosexuals also formed groups, particularly in the mid 1960s, and came forward to fight for their rights. The period also saw many American organizations to renounce the anti-homosexual laws in the country. The surge in gay rights activism helped to change common perceptions that gay is not bad and if a person is a homosexual, he or she should come out and profess it openly (Sussman, 2003). Despite the changes in thinking the Black community was seeing, Leonard, Sophia and Cedric remained strictly against homosexuality. This prevented Jerrel from confessing the truth to his family. Jerrel and Cedric completed their degree and graduated from Howard University as mature adults. Cedric returned to Georgia, married and had a son. Later, he got divorced. Jerrel, however, did not return back to his family. He got a job in a city which was seventeen hours of drive away from his parent’s home. He was apprehensive and scared about coming out. Gay people are concerned about the reaction of their family and loved ones on their coming out because it impacts their ability to accept their sexual nature. Depending on the type of reaction that they get, gay people may either feel satisfied at their homosexuality or revert back to feelings of doubt regarding it. Embracing a gay family member is important because familial responses help to generate confidence in him/her and allow him/her to deal with negative social responses. Since gays are a social group that is not accepted by everyone in the community, having a family to support them plays a significant role in conferring other relationships and in dealing with social obstacles (Morrow & Messinger, 2006). However, Jerrel’s family failed to realize it and so Jerrel distanced himself further and further from them. It was also difficult for Jerrel and other Black gays like him to come out because of the discrimination they faced. In the 1960s, before gay activism gained impetus, discrimination against Black gays was rife. At one instance when gays came out openly and went to bars to order drinks, a restaurant which used to be a gay hangout declined to serve them. Police raids on homosexual bars were also common at the time (Kenrick, 2008). There was little support for gays when they started to come out. Physicians who treated their diseases used to stereotype them and related the reason for their getting the disease to same-sex relations. According to psychiatrists, being gay was a mental disorder. Neighbors were engaged in gossips regarding gays’ sexual lives. Homosexuals had problems getting rented residences and had to face opposition from religious groups who regarded homosexuality a sin. If gay people rebelled against such discrimination, they were beaten up. They were pushed to the limit that they had to make anti-homosexual jokes to avert fights with people (Smith, 2003). There are myriad factors that have contributed to a change in the perceptions associated with homosexuality as well as the gay lifestyle. These factors include drugs, HIV, politics and the Internet (Gans, 2010). When looking at the history gay activism since the 1980s, many theorists associate the rise in AIDS homosexuals to a new period of gay rights. The period since the late 1980s saw the society becoming more acceptable to LGBT as the baby boomer generation started to become prominent. The 1980s also saw the music industry opening to gay musicians (Grosvenor, 2008). Living in a society that was started to open up but still had the skeptics who lived in the past including his parents and brother, Jerrel moved to Hartford in Connecticut- a city more open to homosexuality than his hometown. Hartford is the capital of the US state of Connecticut. It is a populous city and was the largest metropolitan city of the state in 2010. When looking at the demographics, about one-third of the population lives below the poverty line. The crime rate in the city is also relatively high, ranking second in the crime rates of cities all over Connecticut and 19th all over the country. The city also has some of the most renowned educational institutes. Hartford became a home to Jerrel. He started to like the cold winters and the muggy summers, the blizzards and the heat spells; he liked that the rainy days were spaced at adequate intervals throughout the year. He rarely went to visit his parents and his brother Cedric, who had become aware of his homosexuality, after he graduated. The visits soon came down to zero. When his parents died after a tragic car accident, he refused to attend their funeral. This was because the church they were to be buried in did not welcome homosexuals. After the funeral, he did not make any contact with his brother- the sole surviving relative he had left. However things were not as bleak for Jerrel as they appeared. He had met a gay, Fred, with whom he connected. After dating for several months, Jerrel and Fred started to consider a formal union. However, same-sex marriage was an issue in many states. Massachusetts was the first US state to formally pass a law allowing same-sex marriages in 2004. In 2009, Iowa, Vermont, Maine and New Hampshire had also passed similar laws repealing illegality of homosexual marriages. In 1996, the Defense of Marriage Act was passed by the former President Clinton. The Act defined marriage in terms of the bond between a man and a woman and did not grant acceptance to same-sex marriages. However, the law grants the states the choice whether to legalize same-sex marriages or not. Thereby by 2009, 43 states have denied recognition to same-sex marriages, 29 of which have done it through a formal statute (Crooks & Baur, 2009). Moreover, over 17 states have passed super-DOMAs, which are extensions of the Defense of Marriage Act. These super-DOMAs affect employment, healthcare and adoption laws for people who are in same-sex relationships (Knox & Schacht, 2009). Fred and Jerrel were also in a dilemma as to the nature of “union” since same-sex marriages were not permissible in some states. Same-sex marriage refers to the union of two people of the same-sex. Civil union is the legal recognition of same-sex married couples and provides them rights in the state in which they are living. On the other hand, domestic partnerships grant rights to unmarried couples, often in same-sex relationships. The contrast between marriage and civil unions is that the federal government recognizes and grants rights and protection to married couples only. So in states where civil unions etc are not accepted by the federal government, taxes are levied on the benefits given to same-sex couples (Information Please, 2007). Significant other is a vague term that is used to refer to a person’s partner, without giving information about the marital status or the gender of the partner. Fortunately for the gay couple, Connecticut is one of those states which give a marriage license to same-sex couples. The state has a Civil Union law that gives homosexual couples some of the same benefits that married couples get. The current laws relating to marriage have now become gender-blind. Thereby, Jerrel and Fred decided to be married. However, Fred laid down a condition for marriage. He was a family guy and believed that a person must have good terms with his family no matter what. So Fred asked Jerrel to reach out to his only living family member, Cedric. However, Jerrel was ambivalent. He loved Cedric and missed him but he was afraid to restore contact with him. Many Black gay men are afraid to come out largely due to the fact that they do not feel the same confidence, happiness and acceptance that White gays do. In the African American community, despite the gay rights movement, there still remains a certain degree of disgrace, refutation and discontent associated with coming out. Moreover, Black gays are more likely to experience discrimination and stereotyping, as well as hate crimes and violence (American Medical Association, 2004). This stops many gays to disclose their sexual orientations. Jerrel was also not looking forward to his brother’s reaction if he tried to contact him and invite him to the wedding. Family reactions to a family member coming out vary from “I knew that you were gay and it is pleasing to know that you felt ready to share it with me” to “get out right now and never come back to this house again”. People can react differently depending on their views regarding homosexuality. Many people are shocked; some get angry, some upset. Some regard it as a sin, others a phase while another group of people react by sending their member for therapy (Knox & Schacht, 2009). Jerrel knew that Cedric would not welcome the fact that he is gay. He knew that Cedric had an idea about his homosexuality but he never affirmed it openly to neither his parents nor Cedric. Jerrel loved Fred too and did not want to disappoint him. So he confided in him his issues with his family. Fred was supportive of Jerrel and advised him to muster the courage and come out. Communication is one of the prime strategies to a healthy relationship. The couple must talk about their fears and complexes. They should share their feelings on their sexual orientation, how to subjugate social stereotypes and discrimination etc. Also couples need to be supportive and patient with each other, trying to help out and listen to what their spouses’ concerns are. Fred and Jerrel was such a couple. With Fred’s support, Jerrel contacted Cedric after 20 years of no family communication. He told his that he was gay and had met a wonderful guy, Fred, whom he was planning to marry. He invited Cedric to the wedding in a few days’ time and said that it would mean a lot if he came. Fred was overwhelmed that his brother had contacted him after so many years. He was happy at hearing his voice but was also set back when Jerrel came out. Cedric had stopped himself from reacting on the phone but he was still against homosexuality. He was ambivalent of attending the wedding. After a couple of days of pondering over it, he realized that family matters most and he needed his brother in his life. Therefore, he called Jerrel and confirmed that he would be attending. It was an overwhelming experience for both brothers to be reunited after such a long time. They hugged each other and the memories of their youth came pouring back in- fresh as if it was only yesterday. It was at the airport that Cedric met Fred too. It was an awkward experience for him but he shook Fred’s hand and made polite conversation. Later in the day, Jerrel took Cedric out to a tour of Downtown Hartford. Hartford has a bustling gay life and there are a number of activities that gays take part in. Three things that constitute the gay culture nightlife are dance parties, theme nights and drag shows (Gay Cities, 2010). It was a different experience for Cedric to visit such places and to be able to accept the fact that these were regular hangouts for his brother. However, spending time with his brother and seeing gay people live normal lives and enjoy within their own limited group made him sober up considerably regarding his conservative views on homosexuality. More importantly, it was the conversation with his brother which changed Cedric the most. Cedric asked him how Jerrel felt at coming out at the age of 46. Jerrel told him about the discrimination and opposition gays faced in the past. However, he was now 46 and lived in a state where same-sex marriages were acceptable. Nevertheless, he told Cedric, “I was scared that you would refuse to accept me. This is the reason why I did not come out earlier. Mum and Dad used to decry homosexuality vehemently. How could I have possibly told them?” “But now Mum and Dad are not alive. How do you feel that you won’t be able to tell them?”, inquired Cedric. “I have tried coming to peace with that. I have become more spiritual. You see, interventions that centre on the inculcation of spirituality in homosexuality provide several important benefits, one of which is that it serves to improve social relationships. It has been seen in a research that African American people who are spiritual are able to develop healthier communication with their partners (HIV Care for Youth, 2011). I also feel that being spiritual has helped me accept my sexuality. This helped me to develop a positive attitude towards it and has made them feel less isolated and more attached to Fred. It also gave me the courage to reach out to you,” replied Jerrel. Another thought crossed Cedric’s mind. “Why didn’t you come visit us?” Jerrel bowed his head down. “You see. People are afraid of interacting with homosexuals because of the chance of cataracting aids, syphilis and other diseases, and that was one reason why I moved away (Elwood, 1999). And for many psychiatrists, homosexuality is a mental disorder. No one would want a lunatic in their house.” “And mum and dad’s funeral? You could have come for that?” asked Cedric. “I loved mum and dad and as much as I wanted to bid them farewell, I could not have attended the funeral because the church regarded homosexuality to be a sin,” replied Jerrel with sorrow. “Oh I am sorry,” said Cedric, feeling his brother’s pain. “Was it your lifestyle that caused you to move away?” “Lifestyle…” reflected Jerrel. “Yes and no. I mean this city is more acceptable to homosexuality and I could go to bars without being bullied and treated rudely. I can hold hands with Fred in public places without receiving disgraceful remarks. But our lifestyle is more or less like yours.” “Oh. I can’t express how bad I feel at what you have to go through all this time. You should have contacted me. Tell me something. Were there any signals or messages that I sent which gave you the feeling that I did not trust you or loved you conditionally as a brother?” Jerrel looked Cedric in the eye, “That means a lot. But how was I to know that you would accept me the way I am. You and our parents always used to speak against it. I had no reason to think otherwise.” Cedric’s eyes watered and he gave Jerrel a hug. Parting, Cedric asked, “I know that it was Fred who asked you to reach out to me. So what do you feel about him? Is he really the one? How are you dealing with your homosexuality now?” Jerrel smiled, “He is the only person I have met so far who has connected with me. I feel complete. Despite the social stigma that is associated with homosexuality, he encouraged me to be myself and to come out. He has always been supportive of me, and I to him. I can’t hope for a better companion. And being gay, we can understand our problems much better. We share our feelings and thoughts with each other, talk about our future, respect each other…this is helping me cope with myself emotionally. And I feel really better after you have come too.” A loving, brotherly grin spread across Cedric’s face. “Well then. Let’s get started with the wedding preparations!” The heart-to-heart was a turning point for both brothers. Cedric came to accept his gay brother while Jerrel felt that he had finally attained inner peace. Cedric made every attempt thereon to support Jerrel. He embraced the decision that Jerrel took to marry and actively participated in his wedding preparations. He requested the same arrangements for the marriage as he did for his own. Moreover, he agreed happily to be the best man on Jerrel’s request. He realized that what matters the most is that he, being the only surviving family Jerrel had, should not be critical of Jerrel’s decision to tie the knot with someone from the same sex. Families who are facing problems can move towards repair when homosexuality is at play. Sexuality is a complicated phenomenon. Since families function in units, sexuality issues are likely to impact the whole family, although the level of influence may vary from member to member (Bomar, 2004). It may be the case that the gay person has not disclosed his sexual preference and the problems arising may be because of the disturbed attitude of the gay person. Therefore coming out of the closet and discussing the matter, as was Jerrel’s case, helped to improve his relationship with his brother. With the relationship between the two brothers restored, Fred suggested that Cedric make the arrangement for the bachelor party. This was a new thing for Cedric. He did not know what arrangements are made for homosexual bachelor parties. However, he asked a friend of his for advice. His friend told him that there may be two grooms but both of them may have their own bachelor party. A trend that is becoming common in gay bachelor parties is a cigar party. A costume party can also be thrown. In bachelor parties thrown for the grooms, female entertainers are not present. The parties typically have dinner and wines. Cedric asked the couple if they wanted separate bachelor parties. Both agreed that they want one. Cedric made arrangements for a cigar party in a restaurant for gays. Dinner and wine was served and the couple heartily drank away their bachelorhood. The wedding was also a new experience for Cedric. Many of the ceremonies of the wedding were the same as heterosexual weddings. The couples read wedding vows. There was a DJ and photographers. The ceremony was carried out in the Church. However dressing was different for the couple. There were also differences in some rituals seen typically in heterosexual weddings (Hull, 2006). The immersion experience changed Cedric considerably. He had come to Hartford with a view that homosexuality is not acceptable but he left it much liberal about the issue. He realized that gay lifestyle was almost the same as heterosexuals’. Moreover, gay people are equally part of the society as straight people are. They do not suffer from any mental disorder that messes with their sexuality. The trip made Cedric a man with liberal views. Reference List American Medical Association. (2004). American Medical Association family medical guide. John Wiley and Sons. Backend. (2010). African Americans in the Twentieth Century. Retrieved from http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/maloney.african.american Berube, M. R. (1994). American school reform: progressive, equity, and excellence movements, 1883-1993. Connecticut, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group. Bomar, P. J. (2004). Promoting health in families: applying family research and theory to nursing practice. Elsevier Health Sciences. Committee on Appropriations United States Senate. (2005). Potential for marriage development accounts in the District of Columbia : hearing before a subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, United States Senate, One Hundred Ninth Congress, first session, special hearing, October 6, 2005, Washington, DC. US Government Printing Office. Crooks, R. & Baur, K. (2010). Our Sexuality. California, CA: Cengage Learning. Elwood, W. N. (1999). Power in the blood: a handbook on AIDS, politics, and communication. Routledge. Fauntroy, M. K. (1973). Home rule or house rule: Congress and the erosion of local governance in the District of Columbia. Maryland: University Press of America. Fuchs, l. h. (1990). The American kaleidoscope: race, ethnicity, and the civic culture. Connecticut, CT: Wesleyan University Press. Gans, A. (2010). David Drake Directs Slap&Tickle, a Look at Gay Life Over the Past 25 Years, Starting July 6. Retrieved from http://www.playbill.com/news/article/140881-David-Drake-Directs-SlapTickle-a-Look-at-Gay-Life-Over-the-Past-25-Years-Starting-July-6 Gay Cities. (2010). Gay Hartford, CT: Big city opportunities, small town feel. Retrieved from http://hartford.gaycities.com/overview/ Grosvenor, C. R. (2008). Messageboard Archive Index, In The 00s - The Pop Culture Information Society. Retrieved from http://www.inthe00s.com/archive/inthe80s/smf/1141455966.shtml Harrell, D. E., Gaustad, E. S. & Boles, J. B. (2005). Unto a Good Land, Volume 2: A History of the American People: From 1865. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Henderson, L. (2007). Ebony Jr! and “Soul Food”: The Construction of Middle-Class African American Identity through the Use of Traditional Southern Foodways. Melus, 32 (4), 81-97. HIV Care for Youth. (2011). Valuing Cultural Competence. Retrieved from http://hivcareforyouth.org/adol?page=md-module&mod=04-03 Holtzman, L. (2000). Media messages: what film, television, and popular music teach us about race, class, gender, and sexual orientation. New York, NY: M.E. Sharpe. Huey P. Newton And The Black Panther Party. (2003). Retrieved from http://www.freeessays.cc/db/2/aky159.shtml Hull, K. (2006). Same-sex marriage: the cultural politics of love and law. Cambridge University Press. Information Please. (2007). A Primer on Same-Sex Marriage, Civil Unions, Domestic Partnerships, and Defense of Marriage Acts. Retrieved from http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0922609.html Jewell, K. S. (1989). Survival of the Black Family: The Institutional Impact of American Social Policy. Connecticut, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group. Kenrick, J. (2008). Our Love is Here To Stay VI World War II to the 1960s. Retrieved from http://www.musicals101.com/gay6.htm Knox, D. & Schacht, C. (2009). Choices in Relationships: An Introduction to Marriage and the Family. California, CA: Cengage Learning. Knox, D. & Schacht, C. (2009). Choices in Relationships: An Introduction to Marriage and the Family. Cengage Learning. Morrow, D. F. & Messinger, L. (Eds.). (2006). Sexual orientation and gender expression in social work practice: working with gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender people. West Sussex: Columbia University Press. Otnes, C. & Lowrey, T. M. (2004). Contemporary consumption rituals: a research anthology. New Jersey: Routledge. Schumacher, D. C. (2008). History of African American Family Structure 1855-1960. Retrieved from http://wcrw.wordpress.com/member-meetings/the-cultures-of-inner-city-males-crime-and-public-education/chapter-ii-literature-review/history-of-african-american-family-structure-1855-1960/ Smith, W. A. (2003). Gay in the 1960s — the time was ripe for revolution. Retrieved from http://www.thevillager.com/villager_8/gayinthe60.html Sussman, C. T. (2003). Gay New York. Retrieved from http://www.mapsites.net/gotham/es/_carolynsussman_es.html Unrest in the State of the Economy Continues. (Dec 1974). Black Enterprise, 5 (5), 35-38. Welch, S., Gruhl, J., Comer. J. & Rigdon, S. M. (2008). Understanding American Government: The Essentials. Cengage Learning. Read More