Pediatric Growth and Development - Research Paper Example

? Developmental Theories of the of the Psychosocial Development Development of Theory Erickson understood that people can display healthy psychological adjustment only when they are able to resolve the psychological conflicts that they experience in life (Shaffer, 2009, p. 41). Erikson believed that at each stage of their life, people must cope with social ‘realities’ (in ego function), in order to adapt to their environment successfully (Shaffer, 2009, p. 41). Contrary to Freud, Erikson placed greater emphasis on cultural influences on development of human personality and less emphasis on biological urges, which Freud believed to be strong influence on human beings (Shaffer, 2009, p. 41). Hence, in his psychosocial theory, which was also influenced by his own life experience of being born, raised and settled in different countries, he emphasized the importance of social and cultural aspects of development as he observed “many similarities and differences in development across diverse social groups” (Shaffer, 2009, p. 41). Stages of Psychosocial Theory In his theory, Erikson’s proposed eight stages (or psychosocial crisis) of developments, which occur during different ages of human life. The first stage (‘basic trust versus mistrust’), in which mother or care giver are the key social agents, occurs from birth to one year (Shaffer, 2009, p. 42). In this stage, the infant’s chances of learning to trust others depends on his experience with mother or care giver and how his basic needs are fulfilled (Shaffer, 2009, p. 42). Infant may develop a feeling of mistrust and view the world as dangerous place filled with unreliable people if his mother or care giver are rejecting and inconsistent in their care giving (Shaffer, 2009, p. 42). The second stage (‘autonomy versus shame and doubt), in which parents are the key social agents, occurs between 1 to 3 years (Shaffer, 2009, p. 42). In this stage, the challenge is to become independent from parents, and failure to do so leads to development of shame, and doubt in one’s abilities (Shaffer, 2009, p. 42). The third stage (‘initiative versus guilt’), in which family is the key social agent, occurs between 3 to 6 years of age (Shaffer, 2009, p. 42). The conflict occurs as children try to act like grown ups and takes up goals or activities which are beyond their capacity and which are in conflict with parents or family members (Shaffer, 2009, p. 42). Feeling of guilt occurs as a result and hence, achieving ‘balance’ between initiative and encroaching upon rights or privileges of others is the challenge as it leads to successful resolution of the conflict (Shaffer, 2009, p. 42). The fourth stage (‘industry versus inferiority’), in which teachers and peers are significant social agents, occur between 6 to 12 years of age (Shaffer, 2009, p. 42). In this stage, children compare themselves with peers and hence, must master academic and social skills to feel self-assured (Shaffer, 2009, p. 42). Otherwise, feeling of inferiority develops if they fail to acquire the skills which others have (Shaffer, 2009, p. 42). The fifth stage (‘identity versus role confusion’), in which the key social agent is the society of peers, occurs between 12 to 20 years of age (Shaffer, 2009, p. 42). The challenge for adolescents is to avoid being confused about their identity by establishing basic social and occupational identities (Shaffer, 2009, p. 42). The sixth stage (‘intimacy versus isolation’), in which the key social agents are lovers, spouses and close friends, occurs between 20 to 40 years (Shaffer, 2009, p. 42). The challenge is to achieve companionship through strong friendship or else loneliness result (Shaffer, 2009, p. 42). The seventh stage (‘generativity versus stagnation’), in which the key social agents are spouse, children and social norms, occurs between 40 to 65 years (Shaffer, 2009, p. 42). The challenge is to maintain ‘generativity’ by being productive or supporting young people, as failure or unwillingness to do so leads to being labeled as stagnant or self-centered (Shaffer, 2009, p. 42). The eighth stage (‘ego integrity versus despair’) occurs at old age (Shaffer, 2009, p. 42). In this stage, the life experiences, particularly social experiences, determine the outcome as people who are old, feel happy or disappointment based on their view about the way they have spent their life (Shaffer, 2009, p. 42). People who feel their life was productive feel happy and people who feel that their life was unfulfilled feel despair (Shaffer, 2009, p. 42). In this way, Erikson has described the eight stages of psychosocial development. Psychosexual Development Development of Theory Freud discovered that the mental disturbances that his patients experienced often revolved around the sexual conflicts which were repressed during their childhood (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010, p. 43). Hence, Freud concluded that the most important instinct in human life is sex (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010, p. 43). Freud (1940/1964) viewed activities like thumb-sucking and urination, which are usually not considered erotic by common people, as means of erotic pleasure (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010, p. 43). Freud’s view of sex was broad and encompassing many ‘usual’ physical activities as erotic (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010, p. 43). Freud believed that psychosexual development occurs due to the shift of the sex instinct from one part of the body to another as it matures (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010, p. 43). The directions and assumptions of developmentalists in every field have been based on the understanding that adult interests, activities and personalities are shaped by early childhood experiences and conflicts, and hence, development proceeds in stage like fashion (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010, p. 43). Even Freud has described five stages of development in his theory of psychosexual development (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010, p. 43). Freud’s stages of psychosexual development are the gradual development and integration of the three components of personality, i.e. id, ego and superego (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010, p. 42). Freud’s stages of psychosexual development have a central historic influence in the field of psychology even though most developmentalists do not view the theory as viable (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010, p. 43). Stages of psychosexual development The first stage, which is from birth to 1 year, is the oral stage as the mouth becomes the centre of sex instinct (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010, p. 43). Oral activities like sucking, chewing, and biting become the mode of pleasure (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010, p. 43). Infants, who experience unfulfilled feeding through abrupt weaning, develop overdependence on spouse or craving for close contact in adult life (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010, p. 43). The second stage, which occurs from 1 to 3 years, is the anal stage (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010, p. 43). In this stage, the sex gratification is gained through voluntary urination and defecation and hence, the emotional climate created during toilet training has long lasting effects (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010, p. 43). Negative treatment may lead to children becoming “inhibited, messy and wasteful” in their adulthood (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010, p. 43). The third stage, which occurs from 3 to 6 years, is the phallic stage (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010, p. 43). This stage is marked by development of ‘Oedipus’ complex in boys and ‘Electra’ complex in girls, which is an incestuous desire for the opposite-sex parent (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010, p. 43). The conflict during this stage develops anxiety which causes them to “internalize the sex-role characteristics and moral standards of their same-sex parental rival” (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010, p. 43). The fourth stage, which occurs from 6 to 11 years, is the latency stage (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010, p. 43). In this stage, repression of the sexual conflicts, channeling of the sexual urges in school work and vigorous play occurs due to traumas of phallic stage (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010, p. 43). With the child acquiring problem solving skills and absorbing social values, the ego and superego continues to develop (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010, p. 43). The fifth stage, which occurs from 12 years onwards, is the genital stage (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010, p. 43). In this stage, sexual urge is reawakened by puberty (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010, p. 43). In this stage, “adolescents need to learn how to express their sexual urges in socially acceptable way” (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010, p. 43). The mature sex instinct is satisfied though marriage and raising children if the sexual development has been healthy (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010, p. 43). Cognitive Development Development of Theory Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, developed the theory of cognitive development (Rathus, 2011, p.176). Children’s way of perceiving and mentally representing the world is the focus of cognitive development theory (Rathus, 2011, p.176). Children’s concepts of the world are labeled as ‘schemes’ by Piaget (Rathus, 2011, p.176). Piaget hypothesized that process of ‘assimilation’ is used by children to absorb new events into existing schemes (Rathus, 2011, p.176). When “assimilation does not allow the child to make sense of novel events, children try to modify existing schemes through ‘accommodation’” (Rathus, 2011, p.176). The role of adaptation in cognitive development, through the processes of ‘assimilation’ and ‘accommodation,’ was emphasized by Piaget (Nevid, 2012, p. 363). According to Piaget, the qualitative leaps that child takes in acquiring the ability and ways of understanding and interacting with the world, takes place in stages which are fixed in their sequence (Nevid, 2012, p. 363). Piaget hypothesized that it is through orderly sequence or series of stages that children’s cognitive process develops (Rathus, 2011, p.176). According to Siegler and Alibali (2005), the cognitive development sequence does not usually vary even though some children show advance development than others, as observed in case of motor and perceptual development (Rathus, 2011, p.176). However, Piaget’s theory attracted some criticism as psychologists believed that the ages at which Piaget thought children acquire certain skills is not completely correct (Nevid, 2012, p. 363). Also, critics felt that Piaget failed to understand and to give attention to the importance of cultural factors in development (Nevid, 2012, p. 363). The stages of cognitive development are described below. Stages of Cognitive Development The first stage of Piaget’s cognitive development, which occurs from birth to 2 years, is known as the sensorimotor stage (Nevid, 2012, p. 363). In this stage, the child explores and acts upon the world by using his senses and by developing motor skills (Nevid, 2012, p. 363). The concept of object permanence, i.e. recognition that “objects continue to exist even if they are jot in sight,” begins to develop (Nevid, 2012, p. 363). It is interesting to see that children, in many ways, develop and use cognitive processes in the absence of language (Rathus, 2011, p.176). During this stage, infants progress from ‘responding behavior’ to ‘goal oriented behavior’ (Rathus, 2011, p.176). They show awareness of past events with the help of forming mental representation of objects and events, and try to solve problems by doing trial and error mentally (Rathus, 2011, p.176). The second stage, which occurs from 2 to 7 years, is known as the preoperational stage (Nevid, 2012, p. 363). In this stage, the child symbolizes the objects and actions in words by acquiring the ability to use language (Nevid, 2012, p. 363). Yet, the egocentrism, animalistic thought, concentration, and irreversibility limits child’s thinking (Nevid, 2012, p. 363). The third stage, which occurs from 7 to 11 years, is known as the concrete operational stage (Nevid, 2012, p. 363). In this stage, the child acquires the capability of performing “simple logical operations as long as they are tied to concrete problems” (Nevid, 2012, p. 363). Also, the principle of conservation, or the ability to recognize that the amount of a substance does not change if its shape or size is rearranged, is acquired at this stage (Nevid, 2012, p. 363). The acquisition of these abilities is the key acquisition of this stage (Nevid, 2012, p. 363). The fourth stage, which begins at 11 or 12 years of age, is known as the formal operational stage (Nevid, 2012, p. 363). In this stage, “the child becomes capable of abstract thinking.” However, the progress to this stage is not achieved by all children or all adults (Nevid, 2012, p. 363). Kohlberg’s Moral Development Development of Theory Kohlberg developed the theory that tried to encompass those ideas which were not addressed in Piaget’s theory (Oakley, 2004, p. 91). His theory, which went beyond childhood into adulthood, was known as the moral development theory (Oakley, 2004, p. 91). Even though Kohlberg’s theory was complex than Piaget’s, it had some characteristics in common (Oakley, 2004, p. 91). According to Flanagan and Eysenck (2000), the focus of the theory is on ‘how’ individuals think and reach decisions leading to moral behavior, rather than on ‘what’ individuals think (Oakley, 2004, p. 92). Kohlberg’s theory was based on the idea that important distinctions in people’s moral reasoning at different points in their life span gets ignored if one focuses only on the response of an individual in moral situation (Lerner, 2002, p.392). Kohlberg believed that even if people’s response to certain moral situation is same, the differences in their reasoning give different meaning to their reaction (Lerner, 2002, p.392). Kohlberg developed a stage model to explain his theory. The Stage Model of Kohlberg’s Theory Kohlberg has explained the moral development in three levels, consisting of two stages each (Oakley, 2004, p. 91). The levels and the stages are described below. The first level, which usually begins at early childhood, is known as pre-conventional morality (Rathus, 2011, p.377). In this level, the consequences of the behavior are the basis for children’s moral judgments (Rathus, 2011, p.377). In stage 1, the orientation is towards obedience, which is represented by good behavior, and avoidance of punishment (Rathus, 2011, p.377). In stage 2, the behavior is based on an understanding that any behavior that allows people to satisfy their own needs, and of others, is good behavior (Rathus, 2011, p.377). Hence, it is naively egoistic in nature (Rathus, 2011, p.377). The level 2, which begins typically in middle childhood, is known as conventional morality (Rathus, 2011, p.377). In this level, the conventional standards of right and wrong are the foundation for development of moral reasoning and the idea of right and wrong (Rathus, 2011, p.377). In stage 3, the moral behavior is that behavior which is approved by others, which is considered ‘good’ by others and which satisfies the expectations of others (Rathus, 2011, p.378). In stage 4, rules that maintain the social order and which are in sync with the social authority, are the foundation of moral judgment (Rathus, 2011, p.378). In this stage, people show respect to authority and their moral judgment is directed towards behavior which follows the rules and avoids breaking them (Rathus, 2011, p.378). The third level, which begins typically at adolescence, is known as the postconventional morality (Rathus, 2011, p.377). In this level, person’s own moral standards and thoughts are the foundation of moral reasoning (Rathus, 2011, p.378). Hence, in stage 5, individual has to weigh between the social contract and individual rights, to reach a judgment (Oakley, 2004, p. 92). In this stage, social laws and rules are given importance only if they turn out to be right and fair compared to individual principles (Oakley, 2004, p. 92). This stage marks the beginning of moral judgment and behavior which is based on self-chosen principles (Oakley, 2004, p. 93). In the sixth stage, the moral judgment is based on the universal ethical principles (Rathus, 2011, p.377). In this stage, it is not the social laws or rules that drive people but the universal principles and their own conscience (Rathus, 2011, p.377). Hence, if universal ethical principles and personal conscience disagrees with the social laws, then people prefer breaking laws rather than going against their ethical principles or conscience (Rathus, 2011, p.377). In this way, Kohlberg has explained how the development of morality takes place in successive levels and stages. References Lerner, R.M. (2002). Concepts and theories of human development (3rd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Nevid, J.S. (2012). Psychology: Concepts and applications (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Oakley, L. (2004). Cognitive development. East Sussex: Routledge. Rathus, S.A. (2011). Childhood and adolescence: Voyages in development (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Shaffer, D. R. (2009). Social and Personality Development (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Shaffer, D. R. & Kipp, K. (2010). Developmental psychology: Childhood and adolescence (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Read More