Do US Media Offer Negative Perspective When Portraying Terrorism and Islam - Research Proposal Example

1. Introduction War against terror has supposedly created prejudice towards the Islamic population, besides media’s anti campaign has led to furthering this antipathy. Such an occurrence could be a source for media culture research. 1.1. Statement Of Problem The question for the research is (1) Do US media offer negative perspective when portraying terrorism and Islam?” 1.2. Background And Significance Of The Problem Even post 9/11, various terrorist attacks have been executed by extremists Islamic groups around the world. This research paper using data from the last decade (1998 to 2008), examines if the US media has played a key role in enlarging the gap between the Islamic population and the rest of the world. There is a huge curiosity in comprehending the growing anti-Muslim prejudice in the US. However, there is only small systematic evidence about the degree and outlines of the prejudice. One interesting fact is that Muslims in US were predominantly prone to befalling targets of prejudice, even before the September 11 tragedy. Post attack, people started noticing even small terrorist attacks happening in the different corners of the world. Media did the best to highlight the cause and people behind these attacks and waged a perpetual war against terror along with the authorities. This created a gulf between the Islamic world and the rest of the world. In fact, the Muslim countries have marked this alienation and are quite critical of the judgment by the US. 1.3. Statement Of Purpose The research will come out with a fact based inference whether the US media has positive or negative orientation towards Islam. The research will endeavor to reveal their stand with the help of a quantitative research model. Also it will study the viewpoint presented by media of Islamic organizations towards terrorism and US media. Quantitative research according to Dencombe, 1999 is about measuring something which can be transformed into numbers, “generating data that are numerical, with transforming what is observed, reported or recorded into quantifiable units”. Using a proper research methodology, this paper will put forward a quantitative analysis of the media projections of the Islamic world post recent terrorist attacks in the world, which has resulted in a deep gulf between both the worlds. 2. Literature Review There have been several researches carried out in the past on a similar topic. This research paper will review some valuable past literature in this field and use the information or conclusion drawn by them in forming a concrete conclusion. 2.1 The Pew research centre’s survey conducted in 13 countries, including the United States, from March 31-May 14, 2006, depicted that majority of Muslims tend to view the US as, greedy, fanatical, immoral, selfish and violent. One argument is that these impressions are created and mediated by the media. The US gathers information about Islamic activities through mass media. On the other hand, Thanks to technological advancement, Muslim society also uses media to share their opinion of the US.   2.2 The Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR) in its survey found that almost one-in five Americans uphold a strong anti-Muslim outlook.  2.3 Just like most morning and evening newspaper, terrorism is distributed at common man’s doorsteps. For example, the barbaric act of 11 September 2001 was made intimate to all by the invariable mass media onslaught (Halliday, 2001). 2.4 Such invasive trauma can radically amplify media watching (Norwood, 2003). Without the media, those away from the epicentre would undoubtedly have known less. 2.5 According to a study (Ahern, Galea, Resnick, Kilpatrick, Bucuvalas, Gold, & Vlahov, 2002), apart from the first hand trauma experience, the upsetting level of the media visuals also made a huge difference for Manhattanites in New York post 11 September 2001. 3. Research Framework 3.1. Research Hypotheses a) Null Hypothesis (H0): The perspective of US media towards terrorism and Islam is negative. Alternate Hypothesis (H1): The perspective of US media towards terrorism and Islam is not negative. 3.2. Definition of relevant terms The negative orientation can be defined as the stand of US media which can create prejudice towards Islam and associated followers. Media as a matter of fact here includes every mode. Be it print, electronic or radio. Islam is defined as a belief in monotheistic religion characterized by the acceptance of the doctrine of submission to God and to Muhammad as the chief and last prophet of God. Islamic organisations websites are those like Al-Qaida’s. 3.3. Identification of assumptions It has been assumed here that US media houses though take global coverage, but they have their headquarters in US countries. This means that those offices of the US media that is situated in different corners of the world but is governed by their head office in the US. Also it is assumed that the media view point is reflected in opinions of general public who watch it. 4. Methods & Procedures 4.1. Research Design Model The research effort will be guided by positivism (quantitative approach). Studies often involve an attempt to describe relationships that exist in reality, mostly in a single organization. Positivist depends on the approach, the data gathered, and the analytical techniques employed. In regard to this study, a mixed method of research has been adopted in which case, quantitative and qualitative data gathering techniques and analysis are utilized. Denscombe, (1999), outlined that one of the advantages of using this methods is that it allows the collection of more data which may improve the quality of the research. Quantitative Research involves the analysis of statistical data, sourced by the use of questionnaires and/or surveys. In the words of Kumar, (1999), the facts obtained are collected in order to study the relationships that exists and to quantify the variations. Qualitative Research involves examining the attitudes and feelings of respondents and can be carried out either face-to-face, or on telephone conversation (Kumar, 1999). In other timeless definition, Van Maanen (1982) defines qualitative technique as ‘an array of interpretative techniques which seeks to describe, decode, translate and otherwise come to terms with the meaning, not frequency, of certain more or less natural occurring phenomena in the social world’. (In Eastbery-Smith et al. 2002) While emphasis on quantitative research is on the analysis of data, qualitative research is based more on evidence collected from what is being said and also the manner in which it is said. Eastbery-Smith et al. (2002) identified one of the most common methods used in carrying out this type of research as the use of in-depth interviews. This method of research, they went further, ‘allows interviews to be either, highly formalized and structured with the use of pre-determined questions, or for respondents to express their views in a less structured way almost akin to a free ranging conversation, however providing more in-depth details’. It has been observed (Benbasat et al., 1987) that no single research methodology is intrinsically better than any other methodology. Many authors therefore call for a combination of research methods in order to improve the quality of research (e.g.Kaplan and Duchon, 1988). The approach in this study is such that quantitative data is gathered through the use of questionnaires and interviews using both open and close ended questions which are believed and capable of gathering valuable views and opinions of those involved at different levels of the decision making processes. The research would follow the following model: 1. With the help of the internet, search and select 10 US news websites and 10 new stories on them that portray a negative picture of the Islam and terrorism. 2. Technology needed: Internet 3. By selective advanced search method on the web, 10 news stories published by the US media shall be taken as samples. 4. Based on the above sample formulate a questionnaire which will be used in the survey. 5. Analysis of the above samples and the survey results would help us understand the orientation of the US media and the respondents’ opinion. 4.2. Population and sample As this research is studying the orientation of US media through the perception they make on its viewers. Thus It is this complete viewer base that makes the population for the study. But it is very difficult and financially challenging to carry out census on the whole population, thus this study will be carried out over a sample carved out of the population. This sample will be carved out of the people who read, listen or watch various media programs. For this particular research the population and sample shall be: 1. Number of University students: 50 2. Number of faculty( teachers): 50 3. Number of non-teaching staff: 50 4. Number of Random people commuting in buses, trains or enjoying in restaurants:25 Thus, the total number of population sample will be 175. 4.3 Sample Selection setting The sample needs to represent people following media, students, faculty and citizens. Thus the sample will be selected through probabilistic random sampling which will be accompanied by Judgmental sampling. The surveyors’ judgment will aid rational representation of sample units associated with various media websites. Each person will be one sample unit. There is always this question to every researcher. How large should a sample be formed out of any given population? “Sampling techniques provide a range of methods that enable you to reduce the amount of data you need to collect by considering only data from a subgroup rather than all possible cases or elements: (Sauders et al.2007) The above question takes us into the mathematics of probability. To help out is perhaps a quote from Mr Gallup might help put the question of sample size in perspective.  “Both experience and statistical theory point to the conclusion that no major poll in the history of this country (US) ever went wrong because too few persons were reached.” Through the mathematics of probability, we know there is a real but unknown distribution of all possible answers to a question. If we then know that our sample is random (meaning that every person in our audience is just as likely to get a survey as any other person) and that our techniques are capable of obtaining a reliable response (without bias) from each person, we will be able to tell how representative the responses are. Since, it is a real life situation, a target population will be selected, which would be university students, faculty, non –teaching staff and common citizens commuting in train, buses and sitting in restaurants, which represent the sub-groups in the population. To make the survey authentic and possible, a total number of 175 persons shall be taken as population sample 4.4 Ethical Considerations During the various stages of research, the respondents’ profiles will also be collected. This study will take adequate measures to keep them secret. Moreover the study will also avoid carrying out the ethnic profiling of the respondents. The study will remain unbiased towards the representation of the response of the sample unit. The respondents will also not pressurise to get involved with the study. It will be completely a voluntary affair. Positivists believe that reality is stable and can be observed and described from an objective viewpoint, that is without interfering with the Phenomenon being studied. “Positivism has a long history and rich historical tradition. It is so embedded in our society that knowledge claims not grounded in positivist thought are simply dismissed as unscientific and therefore invalid” (Hirschheim, 1985, p.33). Interpretivism on the other hand, contends that only through subjective interpretation of and intervention in reality can that reality be fully understood and so the study of phenomena in their natural environment holds the key to the interpretivist philosophy. Thus, the identity of the respondents shall be kept undisclosed to respect their privacy and ensure safety. However, a common conclusion of their ethnicity, mentality and viewpoint will be drawn to reach a proper conclusion. Data Collection Data Collection enables one to formulate and test working assumptions about a process and develop information that will lead to its improvement. Every process improvement effort therefore relies on data to provide a factual basis for decision making. Perhaps, more than any method, the questionnaire is the most widely used and efficient data gathering techniques. The way and manner the questionnaire is designed is also at the heart of any research effort. Saunders et al., 2007 advises, ‘questionnaire design will affect the response rate, its reliability and validity of the data collected and that these elements may be maximized by making sure that individual questions are carefully designed, ensuring that questionnaire form has a clear layout, the respondents are given an explanation of the purpose of the questionnaire etc. For the purpose of this research, the questionnaires are both open and closed question to be able to elicit the kind of responses that would help to enrich this study and its objectives. The use of Questionnaires have many advantages and there also a number of drawbacks. Generally, questionnaires allow for a larger sample to be carried out compared to the interview method. It is relatively cheaper; it gives greater consistency as all questions are the same for all respondents. Questionnaires can be conveniently completed by the respondents before the closing time. Unfortunately, questionnaires are time consuming. The design process normally involves selecting questions, creating professional and unambiguous layout, piloting and revision before administering. Another potential drawback is the uncertainty associated with the administering process where it is patently difficult to predict how many employees will possibly respond. Though having highlighted the advantages and disadvantages of the questionnaire method, there is however some balance in the rational for the use of this quantitative method of primary research. Based on the above theories, the data shall be collected from the US websites, 10 in number, through internet searching. Also relevant books and past research papers shall also be included for data collection. The books and papers that will be used are put in the reference list. Based on the data and the population sample, a questionnaire will be formed which will have both open ended and closed end questions to have a proper survey result. As far as this study is concerned the followings are the details regarding the data collection: a) Population Size: 300 million b) Sample Size: 175 c) Confidence Level: 95 % d) Confidence Interval: 5 % e) Survey Procedure: Questionnaire (Through E-mail & In person) f) Sampling procedure: Probabilistic random sampling accompanied by Judgmental sampling g) Identity of interviewer revealed: No 4.5 Data Analysis The data collected will have quantitative figures. The analysis need to establish a proper coordination among these. Thus it would be better if the analysis is done through the statistical tools. The quantitative data collected from the sample can be analysed to predict the population through ‘Z-test’. 4.6 Limitations In this study, the major problem encountered is the non-availability of data or perhaps lack of documentation. It must also be admitted that Islamic fundamentalism is rather a growing concern across the globe on which this study has been focused. The greatest limitation of this study therefore is the restrictive nature of the study not extending the scope to media apart from US one. 4.7 Budget and Time The complete process can be seen as set of tasks. The budget and time will have following breakups. a) Development of questionnaire: 1 week ( 100 USD) b) Pilot test of questionnaire and correction: 1 week ( 200 USD) c) Administration of actual survey: 4 weeks (500 USD) d) Analysis of result: 1 week (500 USD) e) Report writing and publication: 2 weeks ( 500 USD) The whole procedure would take about two months and a week to be carried out properly and the total budget incurred would be 1800 USD. 5 References a) Ahern, J., Galea, S., Resnick., H., Kilpatrick, D., Bucuvalas, M., Gold, J., & Vlahov, D. (2002). Television images and psychological symptoms after September 11 terrorist attacks. Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes, 65(4), 289-300 b) Benbasat, I., Goldstein, D.K. and Mead, M. "The Case Research Strategy in Studies of Information Systems," MIS Quarterly (11:3) 1987, pp. 369-386 c) Denscombe, Martin (1999) The Good Research Guide – For Small-Scale Social Research Projects, Open University Press. d) Easterby-Smith, M. et al (2002) Management research. 2nd ed. London: Sage. 658.0072  e) Gallup, George Horace, ed. The Gallup Poll; Public Opinion, 1935-1971 3 vol (1972) f) Halliday, F. (2001). Two hours that shook the world: September 11, 2001: Causes and consequences. London: Saqi Books g) Hirschheim, R., "Information Systems Epistemology: An Historical Perspective", R. Hirschheim, in Research Methods in Information Systems, E. Mumford, R. Hirschheim, G. Fitzgerald and T. Wood­Harper, (eds.), North Holland, Amsterdam, September 1985, pp.13 35. h) Kaplan, B. and Duchon, D. "Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Methods in Information Systems Research: A Case Study," MIS Quarterly (12:4) 1988, pp. 571-587. i) Norwood, A.E. (2003). “Anticipating the psychological response to bioterrorism.” Presentation at the 2003 Code Red, Code Orange, Code Yellow Conference sponsored by the Government of the District of Columbia and the District of Columbia Department of Mental Health, Washington, DC, 22 March 2003 j) Scurfield, R. M. (2002). Commentary about the terrorist acts of September 11, 2001: Posttraumatic reactions and related social and policy issues. Trauma Violence and Abuse, 3(1), 3-14. k) Talbott, S. & Chanda, N. (Eds.), (2001). The age of terror: America and the world after September 11. New York: Basic Books l) Van Maanen, J. (1982) "Fieldwork on the beat," pp. 103-151 in J. Van Maanenet al. (eds.) Varieties of Qualitative Research. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Read More