Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors Affecting Middle Managers in the Saudi Public Sector - Literature review Example

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors Affecting Middle Managers in the Saudi Public Sector Name Professor Course Date Motivating a workforce of an organization to work more effectively towards its goals is perhaps the most fundamental task of management. Organizations motivate their work­force to perform well by rewarding them for satisfactory performance. Rewards under the human relations viewpoint also included the relationship's employee’s form with their fellow workers. It was thus seen to be in the organization's interest to provide an environment that allows and encourages social relationships to develop. The changing view of organizational rewards and employee motivation has led to a multitude of theories of exactly how the job rewards influence the motivation and performance of employees. The job characteristics model proposed by Hackman and Oldham (1976) is primarily social-cognitive in that it relates job dimensions to motivation and other personal out­comes. To determine the extent to which employees experience is determined through psychological factors such as the importance of work, responsibility for outcomes and knowledge of results. Jobs that require the use of several different skills and allow employees to complete a substantial piece of work (as opposed to the continuous repetition of a simple task), and also that are seen as having an impact on other people will be thought of as worth­while and meaningful by the workers in those jobs. The three psychological states are then seen as combining to determine various personal and work outcomes such as high internal work motivation (i.e. intrinsic motivation), high-quality work performance, high satisfac­tion with the work and low absenteeism and turnover. As a result, the model predicts only intrinsic (internal) motivation. The extrinsic rewards effects and other ben­efits, hours of work and working conditions and the resulting extrinsic motivation are ignored. Job dimensions' corresponding directly to Hackman and Oldham's usage (skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback) plus workload, hours and working conditions and replacing Porter and Lawler's 'Fit between role perceptions and demands' so that this along with effort and skills as before drives performance. Boswell, Boudreau, and Tichy (2005) considers job satisfaction as the feelings about job and vary accordingly with respect to the change, and reaches climax and decline as one leaves one organization for another. The satisfaction will decline as one settled on a specific organization as the situation normalizes (Ashforth, 2001). Boswell et al. (2005) modeled the relationship between job satisfaction and turnover of high level managers and found out that employers, satisfaction decreased during the year before the turnover, increased. Although job dissatisfaction has been found to be the cause of employee turnover (Roth, 2006), individuals quit jobs due to various reasons and circumstances such as a negative experience, such as harassment by a supervisor (Kammeyer-Mueller et al., 2005), lead to employee exit from the organization and subsequently re-evaluate the supervisor behaviors in a new organization. Literature shows the important role of newcomer socialization is a positive outcome of work attitudes (Bauer et al., 2007). Lack of socialization among newcomers is more frustrated and feel disconnected, leading to a decline in satisfaction. Herzberg's influential need theory of the 1960's, suggests that humans beings have two different sets of needs in a work situation, satisfies or dissatisfies (Wright, 1989). The first set concerns the basic needs of a person called the hygiene factors (Herzberg, Mausner, & Bloch Sny-derman, 2005). These factors are not directly related to the job itself, but concern the conditions that surround performing that job. The factors are company policy such as for example reward system, salary, and interpersonal relations (Herzberg, Mausner, & Bloch Sny-derman, 2005). These factors can cause dissatisfaction when not satisfied. However, when satisfied these factors do not motivate or cause satisfaction, they only prevent dissatisfaction (Herzberg, Mausner, & Bloch Sny-derman, 2005). The second set is growth needs, which refers to factors intrinsic within the work itself, for example recognition, achievement, responsibility, advancement and work done. Moti­vating factors makes human capable of becoming and when satisfied they work as motivators. The content of work opportunities for responsibility and advancement is the only way to increase satisfaction and thereby enhance work motivation. However, when the growth factors are lacking, it does not cause dissatisfaction (Herzberg, Mausner, & Bloch Sny-derman, 2005). Parsons and Broadbride's (2006) study of work motivation in a retail setting found key factors for job motivation and satisfaction for charity shop managers were examined. Herzberg's division of intrinsic and extrinsic factors was employed. Extrinsic job characteristics examined were for example location of work, job security, salary and working conditions. Communication and organizational climate were examined in the form of factors as working relationships (with volunteers, shop staff, other shops managers, area managers and head office), support (from area management and head office management) and opportunity to influence organizational policies. Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory of motivation was one of the early arrivals among several needs theorists (Ramlall, 2004). Herzberg concluded that people had two sets of needs: hygiene or extrinsic factors, and motivators or intrinsic factors. This meant that satisfaction and dissatisfaction were separate constructs influenced by different stimuli rather than varying amounts of the same factors. Herzberg's view of motivation also showed Maslow's (1943) influence by observing "motivation is a function of growth" particularly where learning brings personal advancement (Byrne, 2001). This self-development is critical to the achievement of an organization's long-term business objectives. Herzberg (1968) explained seven principles that would contribute to a motivating work environment for employees. This vertical enrichment included limiting controls, increased accountability, whole work assignments, job empowerment, direct communications, increasingly challenging work, and special tasks to establish expertise. He distinguished it from the ill-advised horizontal job loading techniques such as job rotation, ever increasing production expectations, and adding meaningless tasks. This showed that the role of supervisors extends beyond the establishment of wages, hours, and other terms and conditions of employment. The extrinsic factors are supervision, working conditions, co-workers, pay, policies and procedures, status, personal life, and job security (Herzberg et al., 1959; Herzberg, 1966). Herzberg claims that these factors did not serve as satisfiers, but their absence could well be a source of dissatisfaction thus, a neutral state would obtain. Extrinsic motivation refers to performing any task with a feeling of being stressed or anxiety just to make sure that one would achieve the result that he or she desires (Lindenberg, 2001). Hennessey and Amabile (2005) depict that the extrinsic motivation is the motivation to do something with the external aim to achieve or impose its success. Extrinsically motivated behaviours are actions that cause the attainment of rewards that are externally imposed, including material possessions, salary, additional bonuses, positive feedback and evaluations from others, fringe benefits, and prestige (Ryan and Deci, 2000b). Extrinsic motivation can easily be seen in everyday life; employees that only go to work because of the compensation they receive. Although intrinsic motivation is a very crucial type of motivation, most of the activities performed by humans are not intrinsically motivated activities. This can be seen after the early years of a human being, when the freedom of being moved pure by one’s own interests becomes overshadowed by social demands and roles one has to play that require persons to take responsibility for tasks that are not initially intrinsically motivating. According to Ryan and Deci (2000a), when an individual is a motivated his or her behaviour shows no sense of causation and intentionality. Under extrinsic motivation, there are several subcategories with different levels of autonomy. Just to the right of a motivation is external regulation, which is the least autonomous form of extrinsic motivation. Behaviours classified in this category are merely to satisfy an external demand or to meet an externally imposed constraint. People feel controlled or alienated with this type of behaviour, and their actions have an externally perceived locus of causality. There has been some confusion about the several definitions of extrinsic motivation. This has an influence on the debate regarding the influence of rewards on intrinsic motivation between proponents of intrinsic motivation and proponents of extrinsic motivation. Sansone and Harackiewicz (2000) depict that the same extrinsic motivation, in this case performance contingent rewards, can at the same time start processes that can lead to an increase in intrinsic motivation as well as extrinsic motivation. Sansone and Harackiewicz, (2000) propose that intrinsic and extrinsic motivation occur at the same time and do not essentially have to be reciprocal. Despite some differences among these researchers regarding the relationship of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, Sansone and Harackiewicz (2000) mention that the researchers no longer focus on mutually exclusive relationships between the two constructs. The effect of extrinsic on intrinsic motivation may be looked upon from different angles. Herzberg associated this factor with an employee's general attitude about his/her relationship with an immediate supervisor. Negative perceptions in this category have been shown to have a substantial influence on lower job satisfaction, commitment, and the intent to quit (Mardanov & Heischmidt, 2009; Mardanov, Sterrett, & Baker, 2007). A positive supervisor-employee relationship influences the quality of two-way communication, trust, and performance while increasing job satisfaction and commitment lowers employees intentions to quit (Harris, Harris & Eplion, 2007). Work conditions concerns the physical work atmosphere including space, lighting, ventilation, and equipment (Herzberg et al., 1959; Herzberg, 1966). In a study of industrial and office workers conducted by Lee in 2006, job satisfaction was found to be positively related to individual flexibility, personal control of the immediate work environment, social interaction, privacy, and few distractions or disruptions. Co-Workers is the quality of interpersonal relationships between co-workers at all levels influences the good feelings and positive support associated with job satisfaction (Harris, Winkowski, & Engdahl, 2007). This includes coaching, helping with assignments, and giving instruction. A positive relationship has been found to contribute to motivation and mediate against stress (Shirey, 2004). It reduces the intent to quit. The lack of social support increases the likelihood of turnover and contributes to job related depression and burnout (Shirey, 2004). Research has shown that compensation does not have a long-term motivational effect (Furnham, 2006). Nor does it necessarily increase productivity. However, Furnham found that if pay does not meet expectations or there is a disparity, motivation and performance is negatively affected. Further, uniform adjustments are less motivational than merit based increases. Finally, his study showed that employees would exchange pay for other benefits like time off and job security. Herzberg tied this factor to employee perceptions about communications, administrative practices, and benefits overall. In this regard, policies, procedures, and practices that reflect a genuine interest in employee well-being encourage organizational commitment. However, if the actual leadership style is inconsistent with the extant policy, job satisfaction and commitment will decline (Blevins, 2005; Witt & Kacmar, 2000). Job Security refers to objective considerations that could affect job stability or tenure (Herzberg et al., 1959; Herzberg, 1966). It also concerns matters such as level of responsibility and opportunity for advancement (Ito & Brotheridge, 2007). Reductions in these areas lead to lower levels of commitment. Organizational instability and ongoing change with potentially negative consequences undermine job security (Cooper, 2006). According to Herzberg, status is consideration that would enhance an employee's sense of importance, prominence, or position in life. Examples would be a big office, and company provided transportation, or any other special privilege that would distinguish one employee from another. Several studies have showed relationship between status and job satisfaction (Rostamy, Hosseini, Azar, Khaef-Elahi, & Hassanzadeh, 2008). Personal life concerns how an employee's job affects his/her personal situation (Herzberg et al., 1959; Herzberg, 1966). For example, a study by Saltzstein, Ting, and Saltzstein (2001) found that most employees have personal responsibilities that recur daily that may require their attention before and/or after work. They explained that demographic and sociological shifts, since Herzberg's report have further complicated this factor beyond initial findings. On the other side of the model are the intrinsic factors such as achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility, advancement, and growth (Herzberg et al., 1959; Herzberg, 1966). By contrast, their absence was not necessarily dissatisfying. However, when present, they could be a motivational force. Accordingly, motivation could be enhanced by restructuring work with increased opportunities for advancement, personal development, recognition, and responsibility (Ramlall, 2004). Human motivation is one of the key issues in the field of organizational behaviour and psychology (Bénabou and Tirole, 2003). The reasons for performing certain tasks have been investigated and researched in order to find the major drivers behind this concept. Motivation energises and directs certain behaviour toward reaching a specific goal (Sansoneand Harackiewicz, 2000). Motivation is often referred to as either intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation is the motivation to do or act in one’s own interests or simply for the enjoyment of the activity itself (Hennessey and Amabile, 2005). Robbins (2003) depicts that, the desire to work on something that is interesting, challenging, satisfying, exciting or involving. Intrinsic motivation is the innate and natural propensity to engage an individual’s interests and exercise an individual’s skills and capabilities, and in so doing, to look for and achieve optimal opportunities and challenges. This motivation comes from internal tendencies and can direct and motivate behaviour without the presence of constraints or rewards. Translating intrinsic motivation to the work environment, it holds that employees genuinely care about their work, that employees search for better ways to get their work done and that employees are enthusiastic and committed to perform well at their jobs (Thomas, 2000). Intrinsic motivators are necessarily bound up with work itself. The intrinsic motivation of having pleasure in a certain activity may cause the individual to spend many days practising a sport and instrument. Many government agencies and educating organizations emphasize the advantages of intrinsic motivation and depict that students should do everything and work hard on tests, projects, regular classes, and such because they want to learn for the joy and not because of constraints or rewards (Dreikurs Ferguson, 2000). When an individual is intrinsically motivated he or she will move for the challenge or the enjoyment instead of the promise of rewards or avoiding punishment. From the birth on, humans are active, curious, and interested animals, when they are not held back by illness, and they show an ever-present eagerness to explore and learn (Dreikurs Ferguson, 2000). Thus, there is no need for extrinsic motivations to move them. According to Ryan and Deci (2000a), research on intrinsic motivation has focused most on certain conditions that elicit, sustain, and enhance this type of motivation against those conditions that undermine or decrease it. Individuals must perceive their behaviour to be self-determined and not guided by rewards or constraints. Individuals have to experience the fulfilment of the needs of competence and autonomy. It is critical to understand that the intrinsic motivation will occur only for situations that contain intrinsic interests for a person. There is disagreement about the proper and right construct of intrinsic motivation between several researchers. The intrinsic motivation refers to an activity that meets basic human needs for control and for competence, which makes the activity interesting, challenging and fun and, therefore, more satisfaction. Linking extrinsic and intrinsic motivation to job satisfaction and motivational theories are likely to be performed for its own sake than focusing on result (Sansone and Harackiewicz, 2000). Moreover, motivation to perform activities that are goal directed at a certain point in time depend on the level of enjoyment and interest experienced. Differences exist in the construct of intrinsic motivation available. Employees who demonstrate a strong orientation for achievement may be characterized by working long hours, accepting challenging tasks, and a willingness to do whatever it takes to reach maximum outcomes. Recognition according to Herzberg is related to positive or negative feedback about an accomplishment. Recognition is an effective means of motivation and a signal from supervision to employees that they are valued for their contributions (Richardson, 2003). Unfortunately, this well-established concept is all too often underutilized by leaders (Nelson, 2002). Indeed, Nelson found that even non-monetary recognition results in higher levels of motivation. In addition, constructive reinforcement also promotes individual growth and development (Jackson, 2001). Responsibility pertains to control over one's work or that of others (Herzberg et al., 1959; Herzberg, 1966). A meta-analysis by Dole and Schroeder (2001) found that job satisfaction increased and the intent to quit decreased as levels of authority over the job grew. This finding corroborates Herzberg's conclusion. Herzberg found that advancement relates to an employee's attitude following a change in position or status. The positive relationship between organizational support for this factor and improved job satisfaction along with a lower degree of intent to quit was found in a study by Jawahar and Hemmasi (2006). While advancement pertains to an actual change, growth is about the potential for advancement in the future (Herzberg et al., 1959; Herzberg, 1966). The positive relationship between this factor and job satisfaction was found in a study conducted by Stein and Craft in 2007. This growth can take the form of vertical or horizontal mobility, developmental opportunities, or acquisition of skills (Carmeli, Shalom, & Weisberg, 2007). Herzberg's (Herzberg et al., 1959; Herzberg, 1966) theory concerns personal employee attitudes about the job requirements and assigned tasks (Freed, 2003). This includes complexity and scope of work. Research reveals that employee perceptions of their work have a direct influence on job satisfaction (Freed, 2003). Thus, job design is an important consideration in the elevation of motivational levels among workers. The predominant culture is derived from regional, national, generational, social, gendered, and organizational cultures, and it in turn influences work values in the UAE (Abubakr, 2006). The characteristics of Arab culture are, first, social diversity characterized by social class cleavages, with conflict accommodation processes along a homogeneity continuum. There is concern with gender relations, in terms of the sharp division of the sexes and of labor. Nelson (2004) documents male domination among Arabs. However, the most influential layer of culture in the UAE in general is the regional, and which includes three factors: religion, language, and history (Abubakr, 2006; Christie, 2010). Understandably, the social function of paid employment in the UAE is guided by the principles of Islam (Al‐Krenawi, Graham, Dean, & Eltaiba, 2004; Metcalfe, 2006) as well as many of the federation’s other social values (Metcalfe, 2006). This cultural norm is upheld in many organizations in UAE that even workplaces without official segregation policies tend to segregate because of strong cultural values (Al‐Oraimi, 2004; Metcalfe, 2006). The work values that are in evidence in the UAE differ significantly from those observed in the West as they are heavily influenced by local culture (Steers, Sánchez‐Runde, & Nardon, 2010). For example, familial and tribal affiliation has a significant impact on the hierarchy of an organisation; some present‐day theorists argue that the national culture heavily affects the behaviour of an organisation’s employees, although not all are in agreement with the theory (McSweeney, 2002). Similarly, DeShields, Kara, and Kaynak (2005) found their results in a study of satisfaction and retention among college business students to be consistent with Herzberg's theory. Clearly, the influence of motivational theories on intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is significant as well. Although the number of theories used is relatively small compared to the total number of motivational theories available in the academic literature, its influence should not be underestimated. Several theories have showed significant correlations with intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. The underlying thoughts and psychological processes that come along with those motivational theories should be used to the best of managerial capabilities to benefit from them. Thus, Herzberg's theory is expected to be useful for this and future study. Job satisfaction is a construct that describes how employees feel about their jobs. The investigation of the relationship of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation on job satisfaction in the public sector is important. Undoubtedly, extrinsic motivation can have the possibility harm intrinsic motivation and job satisfaction. If they do decide to use rewards in order to increase performance, it will be the most fruitful if they focus on rewards that enhance intrinsic motivation or at least do not harm intrinsic motivation. Obviously, having motivated employees can result in having satisfaction of employees. Satisfaction leads to decrease in turnover rates in the organization and to attract new employees. It is when employees cannot get any satisfaction, and they start singing (and leave). References Abubakr, M 2006, Managing human resource in the Middle East: Human resource management in the United Arab Emirates, Taylor & Francis Ltd, London. Al-Krenawi, A., Graham, J., Dean, Y., & Eltaiba, N 2004, Cross-national study of attitudes towards seeking professional help: Jordan, United Arab Emirates (UAE) and arabs in Israel. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 50(2),102-114. Al-Oraimi, S 2004, Gender and development: The role of women in the formal economic and political spheres in the United Arab Emirates,The American University, Columbia. Ashforth, B. E. 2001. Role transitions in organizational life: An identity based perspective. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Bauer, T. N., Bodner, T., Erdogan, B., Truxillo, D. T., & Tucker, J. S. 2007. Newcomer adjustment during organizational socialization: A meta-analytic review of antecedents, outcomes, and methods. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 707–721. Benabou, R. and Tirole, J. 2003. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Review of Economic Studies, 70(244), 489-520. Blevins, RB 2005, Application of Herzberg's two-factor theory of job satisfaction to a Department of Defense demonstration project, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Alabama, Huntsville, United States. Boswell, W. R., Boudreau, J. W., & Tichy, J. (2005). The relationship between employee job change and job satisfaction: The honeymoonhangover effect. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 882–892. Byrne, R 2001, Employees: capital or commodity? Career Development International, 6,6, 324-330. Carmeli, A., Shalom, R., & Weisberg, J 2007, Considerations in organizational career advancement: what really matters, Personnel Review, 36, 190-205. Cooper, C 2006, ‘The challenges of managing the changing nature of workplace stress’ Journal of Public Mental Health, 5, 6-9. DeShields, O. W., Kara, A., & Kaynak, E 2005, ‘Determinants of business student satisfaction and retention in higher education: Herzberg's two-factor theory applied’ International Journal of Educational Management, 19,2/3, 128-139. Dole, D & Schroeder, R 2001, ‘The impact of various factors on the personality, job satisfaction, and turnover intentions of professional accountants’ Managerial Auditing Journal, 16, 234-245. Dreikurs Ferguson, E. 2000. Motivation: A biosocial and cognitive integration of motivation and emotion. New York: Oxford University Press Inc. Freed, DE 2003, ‘Material benefits, advancement, or fulfillment: a study into the causes and predictors of job satisfaction based on how people view their work’ Journal of Applied Management and Entrepreneurship, 8, 116-136. Furnham, A 2006, ‘Pouring money down the drain?’ British Journal of Administrative Management, 26-27. Hackman, J. R. 6c Oldham, G. R. 1976. Motivation through design of work: Test of a theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance. 16, 250-279. Harris, J., Winskowski, A.M., & Engdahl, B 2007, ‘Types of workplace social support in the prediction of job satisfaction,’ The Career Development Quarterly, 56, 150­256. Harris, J., Winskowski, A.M., & Engdahl, B. 2007. Types of workplace social support in the prediction of job satisfaction. The Career Development Quarterly, 56, 150­256. Hennessey, B. A. and Amabile, T. M. 2005. Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. Blackwell Encyclopedic Dictionary of Organizational Behavior, 1-1. Herzberg, F, Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B.B. 1959. The motivation to work. New York: Wiley. Herzberg, F. (1966). Work and the Nature of Man. Cleveland, OH: World Publishing. Herzberg, F. (1968). One more time: how do you motivate employees? Harvard Business Review, 46, 58-69. Ito, J. & Brotheridge, C 2007, ‘Exploring the predictors and consequences of job insecurity's components,’ Journal of Managerial psychology, 22, 40-64. Jackson, J 2001, ‘The art of recognition,’ Canadian HR Reporter, 14, 22. Jawahar, I.M. & Hemmasi, P 2006, ‘Perceived organizational support for women's advancement and turnover intentions,’ Women in Management Review, 21, 643-­661. Kammeyer-Mueller, J. D., Wanberg, C. R., Glomb, T. M., & Ahlburg, D. (2005). The role of temporal shifts in turnover processes: It’s about time. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 644–658. Lindenberg, 2001. Social rational Egoism, in J. Turner (ed), Handbook of sociological Theory. Newyork: Plenum (forthcoming). Mardanov, I., Sterrett, L., & Baker, J 2007, Satisfaction with supervision and member satisfaction in leader-member exchange: an empirical study in the restaurant industry. Journal of Applied Management and Entrepreneurship, 12, 37-56. McSweeney, B 2002, ‘Hofstede’s model of national cultural differences and the consequences: A triumph of faith – a failure of analysis’ Human Relations, 55, 89–118. Metcalfe, J 2006, ‘Principles of cognitive science in education’ APS Observer, 19, 27-38. Oldham, G. R. , & Hackman, J. R. (1971). Work design in the organization context. Research in Organizational Behaviour. 2, 247-278. Parsons, E., & Broadbride, A. 2006. Job motivation and satisfaction: unpacking the key factors for charity shop managers. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 13(2), 121–131 Ramlall, S 2004, ‘A review of employee motivation theories and their implications for employee retention within organizations,’ The Journal of American Academy of Business, Cambridge, 5,1/2, 52-63. Richardson, M 2003, Rewards, recognitions that make sense, California. Robbins, S. P. 2003. Essentials of organizational behavior (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. Rostamy, A., Hosseini, H.K., Azar, A., Khaef-Elahi, A., & Hassanzadeh, A 2008, ‘Employees' social status in Iranian public and governmental organizations: effect of individual, organizational, and social factors’ Singapore Management Review,1,6,17-19. Roth, G., Assor, A., Kanat-Maymon, Y., & Kaplan, P. (2006). Assessing the experience of autonomy in new cultures and contexts. Motivation and Emotion, 30, 365-376. Ryan, R. M. and Deci, E. L. 2000a. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 54-67. Ryan, R. M. and Deci, E. L. 2000b. Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68-78. Saltzstein, A., Ting, Y., & Saltzstein, G 2001, ‘Work-family balance and job satisfaction: the impact family-friendly policies on attitudes if federal government employees,’ Public Administration Review, 61, 452-467. Sansone, C., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (Eds.). 2000. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: The search for optimal motivation and performance. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Shirey, MR 2004, ‘Social support in the workplace: nurse leader implications’ Nursing Economics, 22, 313-319. Steers, M 2007, ‘Antecedents and outcomes of organizational commitment’ Administrative Science Quarterly, 22, 46-56. Witt, A.M. & Kacmar, KM 2000, ‘The role of participation in decision making in the organizational politics-job satisfaction relationship’ Human Relations, 53, 341­-358. Wright, P 2009, Motivation and job satisfaction. In C. Molander (Ed.), Human resource management . Lund, Sweden: Student literature. Read More