Air Traffic Management - Assignment Example

Teams in Air Traffic Management Insert Name Task Tutor Date Introduction Team Resource Management (TRM) involves strategies for making the best use of all the resources available which include people, information and the equipments to ensure optimum safety and efficiency in Air Traffic Services. TRM is basically aimed at reducing the impact of errors that may arise as a result of teamwork in the air traffic management. For the last 20 years, most airlines in the world have been doing well in promoting the concept of improved team working practices. Almost every airline works under the standards of Crew Resource Management for the pilots and other staff in the airline (Kanki, Helmreich, & Anca, 2010). TRM is also becoming part of the controller culture with the increasing teamwork in the air traffic control services. The main benefits of Team Resource Management include reduced number of incidents that are related to teamwork, reduced impact of unavoidable errors and enhancing the stability and continuity of team work in Air Traffic Management. Air traffic control is a very important function in air traffic management which cannot be performed by one person. It therefore involves a team of air controllers who must be well managed through the concepts of team resource management. This paper therefore looks at air traffic management with particular emphasis on the air traffic control teams. Air traffic Control (ATC) ATC is a system of interaction between human and machine with the intention of maintaining a safe and effective running of the air traffic. This concept became popular in 1947 following the demarcation of airspaces around the world into flight information regions (FIRs). The FIRs were subdivided further into classes A to E of both controlled and uncontrolled airspace. The subdivision also specified the type of ATC services to be provided for each class. The three main categories of ATC, Area, Approach and Aerodrome were also identified and the main responsibilities of ATC specified. These range from take off, enroute, arrival and landing. This system works with a flight plan that is submitted by the pilot showing details of identity, the type of aircraft and its destination. These details are then displayed on the radar screen to be used by the controllers to avoid vertical or horizontal conflicting of the aircraft. This control on the radar is done via radio communications (ICAO, 1993). Human factors in Air Traffic Control The main pre-requisite for the effective flow is availability of professional controllers who are highly skilled in the interaction and usage of the machines. This is basically having knowledge in the technology used in this interaction. The interaction between the humans and the machines is a continuous process that keeps changing as technology changes. It is therefore important to place humans who will successfully match with the system to realize the full benefits of Air Traffic Control. Knowledge as a human factor in air traffic control must be applied for better effects o f the human to the system and of the system to human. This is in order to ensure maximum safety and prevent occurrence of accidents. The air traffic controllers must firmly take hold of how the air traffic control system operates while at the same time making use of their own professional attributes to achieve safety of the air traffic. Interaction of human and the system can be illustrated by the SHELL model as below adapted from International Civil Aviation Organization (1993). : Software: these are the materials and the procedures used in the system. Hardware: machines and other aspects of the system. Live ware: the Humans Live ware: the environment and other humans. (ICAO, 1993). Teamwork in Air Traffic Control For safety and efficiency in air traffic control, teamwork is very important among the controllers and between the controllers and the pilot. The team in air traffic control may include people interacting face to face or through writing. Apart from the main actors in a team who are the controllers and the pilots, they also engage other controllers who are involved in some functions of the sector such as the supervisors and the instructors. Controllers interact with other teams of controllers so that they can coordinate in the management of flights. Teams in air traffic control must also interact with the technology in carrying out their jobs. The technological devices used include the radio, the radar and the computers (Waller, 1995). The responsibility of teams in air traffic control includes handling various tasks in limited time both at the group level as well as at the individual level. The functions of teams in ATC are both temporary as well as long term. Temporary functions involve interaction between the controller and the aircraft while the long term functions involve sharing of duties by controllers working in the same sector on the same shift. Despite the composition of a team in air traffic control, they still cannot function in isolation. They work in an environment that highly influences they way they behave. Below is a conceptual model explaining how controller teams perform their duties. This model, adapted from developed by Helmreich and Foushee (1993), shows the inputs, processes and outcomes of team performance. Inputs in team performance include the individual inputs, organizational and environmental. Individuals bring in to the team their physical states such as work attitude, their technical competence and experience to the team. Differences in the composition of the team and their compatibility are the factors that influence the team processes and the performance outcomes. Generally, the behavior of a team is influenced by the physical environment as well as the organizational culture. The physical environment includes that usability and the reliability of the equipments being used as well as the level of traffic. The organizational culture on the other hand includes the norms and values of the organization (Hopkin, 1995). Selection and recruitment of air traffic controllers Recruitment and selection in air traffic management is for ensuring that the organization has adequate and effective staff at all times. This is done by attracting the suitable applicants and matching them to the job description. Eifeldt, Heil, & Broach, (2002) have described the process of selection and recruitment as below: i. Identifying the qualification required for successful performance of the job In air traffic control, this task basically involves job analysis. Job analysis can be done in two ways, one called cognitive task analysis which involves assessment of cognitive competencies and the other one is called functional or content oriented job analysis. This involves description of the job position and the associated roles and responsibilities. The process produces documents containing the job description and person specification which are used in the next step. ii. Identifying the essential knowledge, skills, abilities and other attributes (KSAO) required on top of these qualifications Knowledge is one that is acquired through learning as well as experience. Skills refers to the apparent capabilities of the person top carry out certain tasks for example interacting with the computer system, clear and articulate communication and also ability to collaborate in a team. Abilities are the hidden or cognitive capabilities for example the ability of a person to put together various sources of information in decision making and in managing the workload. Other attributes may include having interest in aviation work or the willingness to work under the rules and regulations of the organization (Compton, & Nank ervis, 1998). iii. Assessing the comparative importance of each of the above requisites Basically, not all forms of knowledge, skills, and capabilities are equally important to each other on a particular job. They are therefore given weight with the highest being 100% and assessed in accordance with the job relevance. iv. Making use of various selection methods to assess the applicants on the basis of knowledge, skills, abilities and other attributes. This is done by looking at their application letters, their curriculum vitae, through interviewing them and also psychometric assessment of their personality, ability and intelligence. It is very important to asses the ability of a person to function in a team since it is a very important attribute in air traffic control. v. Finally, calculating the suitability of each applicant for the positions. This involves identifying the best candidate for the job position. However, in air traffic control, it takes a long time and a considerable amount of money to train the controllers to achieve full performance in the control job. Team Resource Management (TRM) In Air Navigation Operations TRM strategies in air navigation are mainly aimed at making the best use of all the available resources which includes humans, equipments and information to ensure maximum safety and efficiency in the operations of air traffic services. The concepts of development of the TRM was based on various principles which include: joint development by the operational staff and experts in the human factor, incidents and accidents that are linked to human factors, making the operational staff aware of all the details of their working environment and the existence of safety weaknesses, TRM methods based on the best practices of the airline crew resource management (CRM). A study conducted in 1994 by a group formed by a number of European Air Navigation Service Providers found out that failure in the functions of a team contributes to incidents that have negative consequences on the performance of air traffic controllers (EUROCONTROL, 1996). TRM strategies The main approaches used in team resource management within air navigation service provision include situational awareness, decision making, communication, teamwork, leadership and stress management. Situational awareness Situation awareness of defined by Endsley (1999), as having a perception of the critical elements of the environment. Understanding what they mean especially in relation to aircrew’s goals and also what will happen in the near future within the system. Situational awareness in a team is important in ensuring that the team participants are fully aware of the situation they are working under. It also enables the members to identify the factors that may negatively or positively impact on their situation. These are factors such as bad attitudes of the members of the team. Situational awareness therefore enables the members to develop behavioral skills on how to avoid factors that affect their awareness of the situation. According to Boag (2003), high or low workload may affect the team so they need to develop appropriate strategies for preventing their loss of awareness in such situations. Decision making This approach in team resource management enables the team members understand the factors that can contribute to effective decision making. For example they understand the need for situation and risk analysis, problem sharing and resource management in team decision making. The approach also helps them to understand the procedure to follow when making decisions in special or unique situations. According to Hartel & Barney (1998), proper decision making relies upon the interaction between the decision maker and the decision situation. The decision situation is the individual’s awareness of the situation. Communication Communication is an approach in team resource management which enables the team members to understand the importance of communication in ATM and how it can affect the safety of air traffic operations. Communication is part of the standard operations procedure in air traffic management. The main functions of communication are provision of information, establishment of interpersonal relationships and maintaining attention to tasks and monitoring. The team members are also made able to develop effective communication strategies and efficient interventions in typical situations related to air traffic management. Effective communication skills enables the team members improve their interpersonal diplomacy and team oriented decision making so as to generate positive reinforcement and maintain respect within the team (Learmount, 2005). According to National Transportation Safety Board (1992), poor communication has been known to cause one of the worst aviation disasters in the world that occurred in Tenerife where two aircrafts collided and killed 583 people in 1977. It is still being identified as the most likely cause of many traffic conflicts. This is following a research that was carried out buy Eurocontrol which found loss of communication between pilots and air controllers as a big concern. Teamwork Training the members of a team on effective teamwork helps them to understand the characteristics of air traffic management teamwork. They will be able to define the various positions in ATM and the status of ATM team as well as the associated duties and responsibilities and the impact of those positions in the team. The members are also able to identify behaviors that may impact team work negatively and adopt behavioral strategies which may improve efficiency in teamwork. Teamwork approach also gives the team members an opportunity to understand the meaning and differences between the corporate identity and the team identity. This involves understanding the official, the unofficial and the unwritten rules within an air traffic management environment and how these rules can impact team behavior. Teamwork approach also helps the team members aware of their different mental modes which make them have a different interpretation of complex traffic situations and develop a strategy for a common interpretation (Mogford, 1997) Leadership Leadership training in team resource management helps the team members to understand authority in ATM. It helps them to understand the formal and informal hierarchical structures in an air traffic management environment. They understand the roles of supervisors and other leaders of a team. The team members are therefore able to develop strategies that will avoid misunderstanding with the authorities as well as those dealing with assertiveness, submissiveness and aggressiveness. Stress management This approach enables the team members to understand stress situations that are related to their job and how this can impact on teamwork. It will also enable them develop skills for preventing the work related stress and also for coping with stress situations as a team. The team members will be bale to detect stress and find means of overcoming it as a team. Some work factors can also have an impact on safe and efficient control of decisions and this can result in stressful situations. This can however be overcome by effective planning, priority setting and workload delegation (EUROCONTROL, 1996). Appropriate TRM strategies for the different types of controller teams A group of controllers working collaboratively within a tower cab Situational analysis and tram work are the most effective TRM strategies for a group of controllers working collaboratively within a tower cab. Situational analysis is a strategy that enables the aircrew to have an up to date picture of the state of the environment. When a group of controllers is working together, they may concentrate on their operations and forget situational factors that affect the team goals. For example a pilot needs to be aware of other aircrafts on the airline, terrain, system status and warning lights. They also need to be aware of the characteristics of these factors for example the seriousness of warning lights when they indicate that there is a problem during the aircraft take off. Information on the weather patterns is also important to both the pilot and the air traffic controller. Teamwork is another appropriate strategy for a group of controllers working collaboratively within a tower cab since the group is working towards a common goal. As the group of controllers is working collaboratively, all the members of the group need to be aware of the positions held by every member and his or her duties relating to the position. Teamwork may therefore enable the group of controllers identify factors that may have a negative impact on their operations as well as means to overcome them. When the controllers work as a team, they will also identify differences in their mental modes and they will be able to come up with a common mode (LeSage, Dyar & Evans, 2010). A team of controllers operating in adjacent airspace but not co-located Communication is the most important team management approach where teams are operating in two different air spaces. The most important thing about communication is that it is a two way process. The information transmitted must be correct and must also be correctly received. The work air traffic control relies upon use of accurate and timely information. It is therefore important to keep every member of the team correctly informed at all the times to avoid errors. Communication is also important in a team of controllers since it avails information which is necessary for decision making. Since the controllers in the adjacent air spaces will have to make common decisions or will have common issues affecting them, it is important to ensure that there is proper communication and that information is availed at the right time. Leadership is another very important TRM strategy in a team of controllers. Where a team of controllers is working in adjacent air spaces, there must be a leader in every air space and an overall leader for all the air spaces. The team leaders will be charged with the role of overseeing the team activities as well as facilitating decision making processes. The team leader will also assign duties and responsibilities to various position occupied by the members of the team. Generally, the role of leadership in this situation is coordination which is achieved through proper communication (Learmount, 2005). A team of controllers who work the same group of sectors on the same roster This is a team where the team members may or may not meet during their operations. Communication is the most important strategy in managing such a team. All the team members may be working with similar information regardless of their location. Every member therefore needs to be supplied with the right information at the right time so that they can be able to coordinate their operations. There must therefore be clearly defined communication lines so that none of the team members is left behind. Communication will also be important in conveying the decisions that have been made concerning air control activities in that particular sector. Conclusion Team resource management has bean identified as the key factor in air navigation service provision. This is because the whole activity relies upon teamwork and there is no operation that can be carried out by one individual. The members of the team must therefore be well managed to avoid the many errors that may occur in the very sensitive job of air navigation. Air traffic control is part of air navigation services that requires a lot of teamwork. Air traffic controlling occurs in different ways from a group of controllers working collaboratively within a tower cab, to a team of controllers operating in adjacent airspace but not co-located to a team of controllers who work the same group of sectors on the same roster. All these arrangements of teams requires proper team resource management strategies to ensure that of all the resources available which include people, information and the equipments have been made use of in an effective manner to ensure optimum safety and efficiency in Air Traffic Services. Bibliography Boag, C.C. (2003). Quantifying Mental Workload in Air Traffic Control: An Analysis of Air Traffic Complexity. The University of Queensland, Australia. Compton, R.L., & Nank ervis, A.R. (1998). Effective Recruitment and Selection Practices (2nd Ed.). North Ryde: CCH Australia. Eifeldt, H., Heil, M.C., & Broach, D. (Eds.), (2002). Staffing the ATM System: The selection of air traffic controllers. Aldershot: Ashgate. Endsley, M. (1999). Situation awareness in Aviation Systems, In Garland, D.J and Hopkin, V.D. (Eds.) (1999). Handbook of Aviation Human Factors. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. EUROCONTROL. (1996). Guidelines for Developing and Implementing Team Resource Management. Brussels: European Organization for the Safety of Air Navigation. Härtel, C.E., Härtel, G.F., & Barney, M.F. (1998). SHAPE: Improving decision making by aligning organizational characteristics with decision making requirements and training employees in a metacognitive framework for decision making and problem solving. Training Research Journal, 4, 79-101. Helmreich, R.L., and Foushee, H.C. (1993). Why crew resource management? Pp. 3–41 in Wiener, E.L. Kanki, B.G. and Helmreich, R.L. Cockpit Resource Management, eds. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Hopkin, V.D. 1995. Human Factors in Air-Traffic Control. London: Taylor and Francis. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). (1993).Human factors digest no 8. Human factors in Air Traffic Control. Circular 241-AN/145. ICAO: Montreal, Canada. Kanki, B., Helmreich, R., & Anca, J. (2010). Crew Resource Management. Salt Lake City, USA: Academic Press. Learmount, D. (2005). Communication tops ATC risk list. Flight International, October, 17. LeSage, P., Dyar, J., & Evans, B., (2010). Crew Resource Management: Principles and Practice, Jones & Bartlett Learning, New York. Mogford, R. H. (1997). Mental models and situation awareness in air traffic control. International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 7(4), 331-341. National Transportation Safety Board (1992). Aircraft Accident Report (PB91-910409 - NTSB/AAR-91/08). Washington, DC: Department of Transportation. Waller, M. (1995). Multitasking in Work Groups: Coordination Processes in Work Groups with Multiple Tasks. Texas: University of Texas at Austin. Read More