Leadership Traits of General Colin Powell - Coursework Example

General Colin Powell Table of Contents A Short Biography of the Leader 3 Education 4 Early Military Life 4 Different Types of Power that the Leader Used 5 Personal Characteristics (Internal Factors) that the Leader Holds or Exhibited with Examples 7 Relating Leadership Traits of Powell with McClelland’s Three Needs 9 Power Need (nPOW) 9 Achievement Need (nACH) 10 Affiliation Need (nAFF) 11 Explanation If the Leader Used an Emotional, Rational, or Both Type Of Appeals in His/Her Verbal and/or Written Communication 11 Some Demographics and Psycho-Graphics of the Major Groups Involved 13 Demonstrating Needs and/or Wants Sought by the Leader, Other Constituents, or any Groups 15 Demonstrating the Types of Resistance Used Against the Leader 16 A Short Description of the External Setting 18 Specific Learning about the Concept of Leader and Specific Attraction about the Leader 20 References 21 A Short Biography of the Leader Born in the year 1937 in Harlem, Colin Luther Powell (Powell) is a renowned name as one of the United States’ soldier-statesmen and one of the successful generals. Powell is also entitled as the first African-American and the youngest military officer serving as the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, ranking officer in the United States military (Walters, 1999; American Academy of Achievement, 2014). The articulate and the forthright manner along with modest dignity have made Powell to be the most prominent leaders and strategist in the American history. Powel had served 35 years and held various different commands along with staff positions in the US military regime. His parents were Jamaican immigrants who stressed upon the significance of education and individual achievements during their life. Powell grew up and graduated from high school in South Bronx without forming any definite goal or ambition in his life (American Academy of Achievement, 2014). After the successful completion of the Vietnam tours, Colin Powell ascended in his ranks in the military positions at the Pentagon and the Department of Defence in the US. He was named as an advisor in the national security during the year 1987 to the president Ronald Reagan and had taken over as the Joint Chief of national security in the year of 1991. Later, Powell became a major and widely renowned national figure of the US during the Persian Gulf War and was named as the chief military strategist of the nation. In the year 2000, Powell was entitled as the secretary of the states under the realm of President George W. Bush (Holberton, 2001; A&E Television Networks, 2014). Education Colin Powell was raised in South Bronx and was educated in a public school named ‘Morris High School’ within the New York City and completed his graduation from the City College of New York (CCNY). Powell earned his bachelor degree in geology and was also identified to participate in the Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) during his graduation course in CCNY and obtained a commission as the second army lieutenant upon his graduation in the year 1958. Powell was further able to achieve a degree in Master of Business Administration from the George Washington University (American Academy of Achievement, 2014). Early Military Life Powell served 35 years in the professional military through rigorously performing utmost role in different positions and military designations. Soon after joining in training in the ROTC process, he was named as the commander of his own unit’s precision drill team, and he graduated with a top position in the ROTC sessions and achieved the rank named as cadet colonel. He was appointed as a second lieutenant within the strong US Army and was one of the 16,000 militaries dispatched to South Vietnam in the year 1962 under the realm of President John F. Kennedy. During his professional military career, Powell was one of the major recipients who received a number of military awards and decorations in his different designation in the US military segment (Scholastic.com, n.d.). A few of the major and most outstanding military awards and decorations achieved by Powell have been listed as follows: Purple Heart Bronze Star Soldiers Medal Legion of Merit (with Oak Leaf Cluster) Army Distinguished Service Medal and Defense Superior Service Medal Defense Distinguished Service Medal (with three Oak Leaf Clusters) Source: (American Academy of Achievement, 2014; A&E Television Networks, 2014) After serving with strong dignity in the US military regime, Powell retired and joined as the US Secretary of State in the year 2001 and was the first African-American with respect to the post. During the tenure as a Secretary of the State, Powell was bestowed with the role of serving as the principal adviser on the foreign policy of the nation, conducting negotiation regarding the US foreign affairs along with negotiating treaties with governments of different overseas nations (Scholastic.com, n.d.). Different Types of Power that the Leader Used In relation to the overall roles and responsibilities of serving the nation, Powell has been witnessed to spend a large extent of life by inspiring many individuals and institutions with his enduring leadership skills and real-life experiences. As a part of his enduring dedication, Powell along with his wife has made a major contribution in terms of empowering each American’s life from different socio-economic conditions (Bojeun, 2013; DeYoung, 2006). The initiation of America’s Promise Alliance can be stated as one of the major practices of Powell to demonstrate his leadership excellence. In this leadership initiative i.e. ‘America’s Promise’, Powell was observed to dedicate his vital role to the wellbeing of children along with young population from different socio-economic backgrounds. Along with his wife Alma Johnson, Powell was also committed to ensure that the youth Americans are provided abundant resources to improve their skills and abilities that are necessary to strengthen their economic position (Tucker, 2009; Americas Promise Alliance, 2014). According to the period while Powell used to deliver its enduring services in the military regime of the US, there are a number of powers that were highly implemented by the leader to achieve a number of achievements. In this regard, the power of self-actualisation during his job roles can be regarded as one of the major attributes of Powell to be regarded as a key leading personnel in the US Department of Defence (Stefanick, 2009). According to his tenure in the military department, he was not implicated to involve in any types of wrongdoings while performing roles under different military positions. Powell was one of the five key members in the Pentagon regarding the operation i.e. shipment of American arms to Iran (Holberton, 2001). He was called upon and testified to take part in the different defence private sessions and he dedicatedly performed his role and replicated his power to have adequate privacy of the operational goals and strategic directions (Tucker, 2009; Bojeun, 2013). Moreover, during the years of the military services, Powell was also renowned for his inherent capabilities of concealing strategic or political sympathies. According to the leadership tenure of Powell during the period of his assistant commanding and deputy commanding positions, he never disclosed political sympathies. Besides, Powell also registered to ensure his vote as an independent American and provided adequate services to the both Democrats and Republicans. Therefore, it is evident that the adequate level of integrity and accountability is amid the major leadership powers of Powell that enabled him to attain the position of a key person in the US defence and political environment as well (Tucker, 2009; Bojeun, 2013). Furthermore, there are certain other attributes such as inspiring individuals and groups which can also be considered as amid the major set of powers of Powell. In this context, it has been critically identified that the leader was also renowned for his enduring motivational skills that significantly enabled each member within the Department of Defence to increase their performance while serving for the nation. Providing continuous motivation and encouragement to each subordinate, helping others or boosting team performance can be considered as a powerful weapon of Powell. According to his tenure in the military department, helping each individuals or building strong team work was also a major and key attribute of Powell to successfully achieve his roles and responsibilities within his assigned domains in the US (Tucker, 2009; Bojeun, 2013). Personal Characteristics (Internal Factors) that the Leader Holds or Exhibited with Examples The successful leaders from multitude operational segments have a few major attributes or internal factors that are highly recognised to empower their leadership skills to sustain for a longer period of time. The key internal factors or leadership traits are the most powerful weapons for a leader not only to improve the performance level of the subordinates, but also to play a pivotal role in terms of achieving the shared goals and objectives of the organisation. With regard to the internal factors associated with Powell, the leader possesses a set of strong key attributes that are likely to play a decisive role in terms of making decision or formulating effective working direction for an organisation or group (OSullivan, 2009). Being a key military leader in the US, the leadership traits of Powell were highly characterised into various internal factors. In this respect, depiction of adequate trustworthiness is one of the key internal traits of Powell, which has played a major role for the leader to achieve success in his different military positions. During the tenure of his successful leadership in the US military department, Powell was identified to gain strong trust of other subordinates and members associated with different job roles within the groups. He made each member of the military groups to comply with his commands and encouraged them to be determined towards the predefined objectives of different military operations. For instance, Powell had played a key role in numerous military plans and strategic directions that were required to maintain adequate privacy and confidentiality (Seminara, 2013). The assertive characteristics of the leader had been observed during his entire performance that led to strengthen the vision of each individual person under his command. Moreover, the incident of injury during the period of his second tour to the Vietnam in the year 1968-1969 significantly represents that Powell has also a strong belief of teamwork with utmost confident. Although Powell was severely injured during a helicopter crash, he had also been observed to manage the other comrades within his troop (American Academy of Achievement, 2014; Stefanick, 2009). Enthusiasm has also been observed as a key internal determinant of Powell, which has also played a pivotal role for the leader to coerce the other individuals towards focusing on strengthening group performance (Tucker, 2009). During the leadership tenure of Powell, the group members were likely to respond to his positive directions enthusiastically by complying with each command of the leader. Powell was highly enthusiastic regarding his each decision and directional activities that made the other subordinates and soldiers to have adequate trust regarding the decisions of the leader along with rendering independent support towards the strategic directions. In this regard, the adequate deliverance of effective direction to the military operations along with political performance of the government throughout his realm as the General of Department of Defence can be considered as a major example of his enthusiastic leadership approach (Seminara, 2013; Stefanick, 2009). Relating Leadership Traits of Powell with McClelland’s Three Needs With respect to the leadership excellence of Powell, the following discussion of McClelland’s three needs demonstrates the leadership philosophy and practice of the leader in different military and administrative positions in the US. Power Need (nPOW) According to the theoretical understanding, a higher level nPOW is characterised into two major determinants such as personalised power and socialised power. A leader with a high level of personalised power may have lower amount of consciousness to control his/her power. With regard to the leadership style of Powell, it is evident that the leader demonstrated a higher level of consciousness along with self-control while directing his followers during his tenure in the US military department. The depiction of adequate level of confidence regarding the military decisions has over the years made Powell to replicate his leadership efficiency in different positions of the US military departments (Swenson, 2000; Harari, 2003). On the other hand, a leader with higher level of socialised power can provide equal benefit to the organisation and the community surrounding it, rather than merely empowering the leadership status (Swenson, 2000). The leadership roles of Powell demonstrate a notion of practices that are developed to gain benefit both for the military teams along with the people of America. The roles the leader used to play during his tenure as the US Secretary of State have been recognised to build strong relationship and reduce potential threats from the other countries. Besides, the inauguration of America’s Promise Alliance in 1997 can also be considered as a major example of socialised power practiced by Powell through emphasising advancement of American children from different socio-economic backgrounds (Americas Promise Alliance, 2014; Bojeun, 2013). Achievement Need (nACH) In relation to the leadership style along with practices of Powell, it is recognised that there is a number of achievements that were accomplished by the leader similar which had barely been achieved by any individual in the US military department. During his presence in the military in different positions, Powell was highly dedicated and sought to make effective direction for the military troops to successfully achieve the objectives of the department. In this context, it is further affirmed that the leader performed different operational decision making activities that enabled him to exercise his skills and implement them actively to deal with various types of problems (Abraham, 2004). In various studies, it has also been recognised that the continuous inspection of evaluating performance of the individuals and groups to increase their efficiency has also been identified as a major attribute, which significantly ascertains that Powell possesses a higher level of nACH, which enabled him to be one of the most successful leaders in the US military (Bojeun, 2013). Affiliation Need (nAFF) Being a prominent leader in the US military regime, it has been identified that Powell used to build strong and close relationship with each individual and group regardless of their designated position with different military roles. Moreover, his role as the president of ‘America’s Promise Alliance’ is a major example of higher affiliation need of Powell. The leader plays an important role through developing children and youth from different communities and through ensuring the deliverance of well-developed education and healthcare facilities to the young Americans irrespective of their demographic and socio-economic backgrounds (Walters, 1999). Explanation If the Leader Used an Emotional, Rational, or Both Type Of Appeals in His/Her Verbal and/or Written Communication Colin Powell is one of the most popular and admired modern American leaders. His service for the people of the country is unbelievable and appreciable. He has depicted a situational form of leadership which he developed in the military arena while dealing with different situations and scenarios. In the words of General Colin Powell, “Leadership is all about people. It is not about organizations. It is not about plans. It is not about strategies. It is all about people–motivating people to get the job done. You have to be people-centred” (Fierce Inc, 2012). He believed that in order to be effective and successful, it is important to be both emotional as well as rational while leading the people effectively. The decision making process should exhibit both rational and the emotional aspects in dealing with the situations. It is observed that a human being behaves in an emotional manner in the first place and then rationally. In case of Colin Powell, he was a military leader with strong leadership traits which are required to be effective. Powell was trustworthy among the people he was leading, was assertive and was also confident. Confidence and being rational is important for the leader in order to make effective decision during life threatening situations. Moreover, Powell also expressed emotional aspects in his leadership style. He believed that being emotional will allow the soldiers to bring issues to him which would express his effectiveness as a leader. He was tolerant, enthusiastic and had the ability to attain the goal (Leadership Resource Group, n.d.). The emotional aspect of Colin Powell is demonstrated through his actions. He established the organisation named America’s Promise Alliance for the welfare of the society. It was established in the year 1997 for the development of the society. The alliance was made to support the people, children and to educate them in order to make the world a better place to live. The reason for such emotional initiative was that he wanted the kids to be responsible towards their community. This initiative exhibited the emotional aspect of Colin Powell’s leadership trait. Besides, educating the people for the benefit of the society was not his responsibility but the emotional aspect drove him towards this action (Anderson, 2012). Colin Powell being a leader and a General was rational in his decisions. He was responsible and acted as sensible leader in various situations. During the Vietnam War, Powell was acting rationally in protecting the border with Laos. During his tour to Vietnam, he got injured in a helicopter crash. Although he was injured through his sensible thinking and skills he was managed to rescue the comrades from the burning helicopter. This spirit and action of Powell exhibited his rational side of leadership (American Academy of Achievement, 2014). These acts of Powell evaluated that he was both rational i.e. logical and responsible in his actions. He was ambitious towards the attainment of the goal i.e. safeguarding the country and the people. Furthermore, he was emotional as he thought about the society and also raised three orphan children. This action of Powell expressed his emotional side for the betterment of the society through his verbal communication (American Academy of Achievement, 2014). Some Demographics and Psycho-Graphics of the Major Groups Involved General Colin Powell is a leader who acted rationally as well as emotionally while dealing with different situations. He is a balanced person who worked efficiently to set examples through his work and achievement as leader and a civilian. He worked for the betterment of the society and established one of the largest partnership organisations. He established the organisation for the children irrespective of their gender in order to improve their life and create awareness among the society. He not only focused on the children but also worked for the youth to create awareness and educate them to improve the standard of living. He expressed his care towards the society irrespective of the income, caste and community but extended support to the demographic for the up gradation of the society to reduce terror and increase harmony. Providing education to every group of individuals was his prime focus to safeguard the life of the people and create a safe environment for the demographic development of the society. He being a great leader and individual worked for the society by establishing communities that endure healthy lifestyle and serve their community at large (Gifford et al., 2011). Also, Powell launched the Grad Nation movement for the individuals, communities and demographics to work together. Powell believed that a lack of education among the people is the reason for the crisis and thus the objective of the Grad Nation is to provide diplomas to the people. He stated that it is important to educate and inspire youth to increase diversity and entail the demographic change. He through his activity and characteristics tried to bring demographic changes by treating people equally and giving no space to racialism. He worked for the black people along with the white to help the demography by supporting equality. He did not judge people in terms of their income and supported every individual for the upgradation. The America’s Promise Alliance is one such initiative taken by the Powell (Balfanz et al., 2009; Gates, n.d.). With regard to psychographics, it is reflected that Powell had a personality trait which is Extrovert, Sensing, Thinking, and Judgmental. He is realistic in his thinking and does value rationale thinking when taking decisions regarding the war and the comrades. His characteristic of selflessness has been exhibited throughout his career while serving for the nation. This can be evaluated from the incident wherein he saved the lives of the people without caring about his own life. Another psychographic dimension is related with his mental toughness and rationale which is exhibited through his activities. He is an unwavering individual as during the Vietnam War although he was injured but still he strived hard to serve the people. He is independent and has a positive along with helpful opinion regarding the society. Although he has had to face racism in the initial years of his life wherein he was not allowed to visit few restaurants but still he has demonstrated the openness in his thought process to serve the whites equally. He replicated a fair and constant behaviour for the people and focused upon the betterment of the society which helped in enhancing the lifestyle of the people (Balfanz et al., 2009; Gates, n.d.). Demonstrating Needs and/or Wants Sought by the Leader, Other Constituents, or any Groups With reference to a brief analysis of the leadership traits and characteristics, it can be stated that the leadership style of Powell is highly focused on developing effective mechanism to ensure continuous development of the Americans. Powell has demonstrated a multitude of characters and leadership roles as national security adviser of the President of the US, chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff along with Secretary of State under the principles of different US presidents spanning over twenty years. During each responsibility, he wielded his independent authority at the paramount level of the salient foreign bureaucracies ranging from the White House, the Pentagon, the State Department and the Joint Chiefs (OSullivan, 2009). With respect to the political ideology of Powell, it has been witnessed that he has focused on maintaining the continuous development of the Americans irrespective of their demographic and socio-cultural variance. During the period of his military realm in the US, Powell had never been observed to disclose the political beliefs and ideological sympathies. He had dedicated his enduring performance for both the Democrats and Republicans in different scenarios faced by the nation. He was also urged by many people to stand as a strong participant as the American President in the year 1990 due to his strong governance principles along with great popularity in the position of the General in the US military department. The strong governance principles and effective leadership competencies have been identified to play a major role for Powell during his successful journey from serving as a ground level military person to Secretary of State (Bojeun, 2013). In this regard, it can be critically stated that the leader has depicted exceptional positional leadership not only to improve the socio-economic condition of each individual American, but the political ideology of Powell has focused on strengthening the political condition of the US as well. Demonstrating the Types of Resistance Used Against the Leader Although the enduring leadership roles of Powell have enabled him to position himself as one of the most successful and admired Americans, the leader has faced a significant number of controversies throughout his expedition from the ground-level personnel to the Secretary of the State as well. Over the past 20 years, Powell has been viewed to engage in different important foreign along with defence policy debates. During his period in the US military department, Powell had faced different issues relating to the deployment of American power in different global nations and territories. Moreover, the strategic directions of the leader had also been observed to register itself as a major topic of discussion for a few of the global nations who strongly criticised the continuous domination of US power in considerably low power nations (OSullivan, 2009). In this context, it is affirmed that the use of US power over Vietnam, intervention in Panama in the year 1989 along with making an intervention in the Persian Gulf in the year 1991 can be considered as a few of the major debatable factors that significantly represent a different view of leadership possessed by General Powel (OSullivan, 2009). Although the leader has played a prominent role towards building a strong relationship with the other countries, the policies developed by the Presidential Administrations were identified to create major resistance for Powell to successfully implement his political ideology. Besides, the policy developed during the Bush Administration associated with Arab-Israeli conflicts had created severe resistance towards Powell’s leadership. With the aim of keeping a ‘hands-off’ policy, the persuasion of Middle-East Policy by the Bush Administration has been observed to create a serious division among Powell with Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld and the Vice President Richard Cheney. With regard to the Middle-East policy, Powell highly disagreed with the aim of strengthening sanctions against Iraq. He was also been observed to emphasise the primary roles and responsibilities of the parties towards mitigating their conflicts (Freedman, 2005). However, it can also be observed from various studies that the ideological as well as non-rational personality regarding the administrative decision making process for Iraq was also emphasised by Powell along with the other administrative personnel. With regard to such aim to dominate Iraq, Powell was also among the other administrative members to be criticised due to the non-rational psychological process. In relation to the major conflicting area associated with the Middle-East Policy, the renewal proposal for negotiating peace talk over the Arab-Israeli conflict can also be considered as an effective way for the nation. In this period, Powell has also been recognised to move closer with the Israeli position even after the violence demanded by the Likud leader and head of Israeli Government Ariel Sharon. Correspondingly, it can also be stated that the leadership roles and responsibilities of Powell as the Secretary of State have played an essential role towards the alteration of the Bush Administration’s Middle-East Policy (Lieberfeld, 2005). Therefore, it has been widely accepted that the leadership roles along with political ideologies and practices of Powell faced a few major confrontations. However, the strong governance skills along with wider controlling power of Powell had enabled the leader to maintain his position. A Short Description of the External Setting With reference to a brief synopsis of military power and political ideologies, it has been observed that the leadership style of Powell has successfully established a well-built governance culture in the US. Although the leader has faced a number of confrontations, the excellence of his leadership skills and practices enabled him to form strong governance system under the Administrations of the nation. In relation to the leadership tenure of Powell, there are a number of influencing factors that led him to independently develop his leadership excellence. In this regard, the external setting with respect to the leadership traits of Powell involves a number of key external factors that imposed him to be a key administrative person in the US. A few major key external factors of Powell have briefly described in the following section (Oakley, 2013). The family members can be considered as the first and foremost external factor that enabled Powell to harvest a wide range of effective leadership and political principles. The continuous process of nurturing strong beliefs by the family members has played an essential role for Powell to yield a robust dedicative character at the early stage of his life. Moreover, the leader has also stated that continuous stress of the parents to develop morals and beliefs is also a set of effective traits that helped him to improve his leadership skills in each step of his life (Lieberfeld, 2005). Although the continuous nurturing with strong beliefs of the each family member was the most effective external factors, Powell has gained a substantial admiration as well as respect from the members associated with both political parties and American communities. The leader has been determined to gain knowledge and being inspired by people from diverse nationalities, cultures or occupational backgrounds. The continuous achievement of inspirations from the political leaders and individuals from diverse American communities has played a decisive role for Powell to energise his exceptional leadership skills and political ideologies (Oakley, 2013). In addition to the external factor, the American political leaders from different administrative realms had also a major influence in terms of increasing his self-confidence and dedication towards each Americans. The governing system and processes of different political leaders from both the US and other global countries have significantly enabled Powell to gain experience and increase the ability to improve his decision making processes. During his authority as a multitude position in the American military segment, the leader has also stated that the community members across the different states of the nation has had a major influence on the leadership roles and practices of Powell (Seminara, 2013; Oakley, 2013). Correspondingly, the religious beliefs can also be considered as one of the major external factors for Powell to strengthen his self-confidence. The religious beliefs and faith had enabled to increase his value of integrity, loyalty and honesty while performing multiple roles as a military commandant or political leader. Therefore, it can be stated that the external factors have also a major influence that significantly motivated Powell to build his exceptional authority of power and decision making process. Additionally, the leader has also been determined to be encouraged by different political leaders and community members while making a range of vital decisions (Seminara, 2013). Specific Learning about the Concept of Leader and Specific Attraction about the Leader Leadership as per Colin Powell is reflected as a responsibility towards the society and prosperity of the group. Leadership is not about leading an organisation but is about caring and being rational about the people. A leader needs to be mentally tough at the same time be emotional while dealing with different situations. Powell is one of the leading leaders of America who has a strong personality with a caring attitude. Collin Powell has replicated a tough as well as a warm demeanour in his personality which helped in attracting and helping people. He worked hard for the people of the country irrespective of the race and demographics. He has a strong bond for the people of his country and so the comrades followed his instructions without hesitation. Selflessness is one of the personality traits he possesses which has made him appealing and attractive by the people of the society (Appling, n.d.). Colin Powell did not give importance to his ego when it was related to the benefit of the people of the society. He predominantly remained calm in challenging situations and took rational decisions which made him alluring to the people along with his fellow members to be idolised. He is not bias but believed in equality and worked for the communities. He is a hardworking person and could put his life into danger for the wellbeing of the society and the country. Moreover, he stated that the actions should be taken as per the situation and need of the hour. His sensitivity and extrovert nature made him an effective leader and a responsible person who worked for the benefit of the constituents (Harari, 2003). References Abraham, S. (2004). U.S. national energy policy and global energy security. An Electronic Journal of the U.S. Department of State, 9(2), 1-39. Anderson, J. (2012). Colin Powell: America’s Promise Alliance. Retrieved from http://www.gse.harvard.edu/news-impact/2012/05/watch-the-colin-powell-askwith-forum-live/ Appling, B. (n.d.). A conversation on leadership with general Colin Powell. Uploads. American Academy of Achievement. (2014). Colin Powell biography. Retrieved from http://achievement.org/autodoc/page/pow0bio-1 Americas Promise Alliance. (2014). Our history. Retrieved from http://www.americaspromise.org/our-history A&E Television Networks. (2014). Colin Powell. Retrieved from http://www.history.com/topics/colin-powell Balfanz, R., Fox, J.H., Bridgeland, J.M. & McNaught, M. (2009). Grad Nation. A Guidebook to Help Communities Tackle The Dropout Crisis, 2-99. Bojeun, M. C. (2013). Program management leadership: Creating successful team dynamics. The United States of America: CRC Press. DeYoung, K. (2006). Soldier. New York: Random House LLC Fierce Inc. (2012). Fierce conversations in education reform: uncovering the ground truth. Upload, 1-11. Freedman, R. O. (2005). Bush Administration & the Arab-Israeli Conflict: First Four Years. Middle East Review of International Affairs 9(1), 1-18. Gifford, B., Evans, K., Berlin, L. & Bai, Y. (2011). America’s Promise Alliance. Duke University, 3-26. Gates, H.L. (n.d.). Powell and the black elite. Psychology, 1-20. Harari, O. (2003). A leadership primer. Wellness Councils of America, 18- 21. Holberton, P. (2001). Profile of a leader: Colin Powell. Speaking of Leadership 2(8). Leadership Resource Group. (n.d.). Colin Powell and situational leadership. Tripod. Lieberfeld, D. (2005). Theories of conflict and the Iraq war. International Journal of Peace Studies 10(2), 1-21. Oakley, C. (2013). Colin Powell: An African American military and political leader who transcended the racial barriers of America. Proquest. OSullivan, C. D. (2009). Colin Powell: A political biography. The United States of America: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Scholastic.com. (n.d.). Biography of General Colin L. Powell. Retrieved from http://teacher.scholastic.com/barrier/powellchat/bio.htm Seminara, C. A. (2013). The fine line between Jim Jones and Colin Powell. San Diego State University. Stefanick, M. L. (2009). Powell’s Leadership Principles – Time for state department to revisit. U.S. Army War College, 1-28. Swenson, D. X. (2000). David McClellands 3-need theory achievement, affiliation, power. The College of St. Scholastica. Tucker, S. (2009). U.S. leadership in wartime: Clashes, controversy, and compromise, volume 1. The United States of America: ABC-CLIO. Walters, R. W. (1999). African American leadership. New York: SUNY Press. Read More