General Systems Theory: Problems, Perspectives, and Practice by L.Skyttner - Book Report/Review Example

Chapter1 Social and humanistic sciences are spread out over many areas, with the focus of this module being general systems theory. According to Skyttner (2006), general systems theory is focused on understanding man and his normal interaction with the environment. The first chapter of Skyttner’s book focuses on the development of different theories in the general systems field, with the introduction of the scholastic paradigm, the renaissance paradigm, the mechanistic world view, the hegemony of determinism, the age of relativity, and the systems age. According to Skyttner (2006), the scholastic paradigm revolved around religion, with all scientific and social developments supporting religion. In this era, religion was superior to all other factors, and nature was alive and mortal. In this case, theological considerations took precedence over all other factors. This paradigm was philosophical in nature, and took precedence by joining mortality, heavenly systems, and physical or worldly systems. The renaissance paradigm tried to account for the shortcomings of the scholastic paradigm by acknowledging scientific principles (Skyttner, 2006). This paradigm introduced the notion of careful observation of the universe, with inferences and conclusions drawn from observation. This era saw the introduction of scientific methods of considering the factors that affected humankind. For example, Skyttner (2006), states that the emergence of knowledge about astronomy greatly increased understanding of humankind as is now known. The beginning of the 18th century saw the firm establishment of the scientific world view, which was done during the mechanistic paradigm and determinism. In this era, the traditional superstitions were replaced by careful analysis of the factors in the environment, and often, the rational analysis led to scientific conclusions. The overwhelming conclusion from this age was that all factors could be rationally explained, thus the mechanistic tendency. This era was followed by the hegemony of determinism, where it was believed that all factors in the universe followed a supposed pattern. According to Skyttner (2006), this age was characterized by a belief that all events followed a specific pattern, that all factors could be explained by the principle of causality. However, the principle of determinism was disproved by Einstein, who introduced the concept of relativism. Instead of a causality principle, the relativity principle served to disprove the notions of the deterministic era. Finally, the general system theory was introduced in the 1950’s to explain the failure of previous paradigms, where the universe is interconnected by way of different systems. The interaction of these systems cannot be explained by one single factor, thus the introduction of the general systems theory (Skyttner, 2006). Chapter 2 In this chapter Skyttner (2006) explains the different factors in the general systems theory, for example, the author defined the system as the collection of different entities that interrelate to give a whole factor. The organization and interrelation of the different factors in the system give the general characteristic of the system. In this chapter, the author discusses the main branches of systems, including the abstract and conceptual systems. The main difference between these two systems is in their organization. As already stated, a system is an interrelation of various parts, and a conceptual system defines a system of concepts and ideas. According to Skyttner, a conceptual system is made of an organization of ideas presented symbolically. The main difference between the abstract and conceptual system is derived from their compositions. The conceptual system is made of ideas arranged symbolically, and the abstract system is strictly made of concepts. An analysis of this chapter also reveals another interesting fact, the presence of emergent properties. According to Skyttner (2006), emergent properties refer to the resulting property of a system from the interaction of the individual elements in the system. This means that emergent properties exist in every system, since a system is an amalgamation of the factors that constitute the system. Entropy and negentropy influence man-made systems since they refer to the presence of unused energy in the system, which leads to a general state of disorder in a system, which in turn serves to destroy the harmony present in a system. Feedback regulation is also an important part of general systems theory, since it helps in the correction of unforeseen errors. According to Skyttner (2006), the presence of a feedback loop in a system maintains certain variables in a system, which, when changed, indicate an error, which can then be corrected. The last factor discussed in this chapter is the element of size, where bigger systems are usually more successful than small systems. This proposition can be explained by the principle of growth, where a bigger system has a better chance of growing and adapting than a smaller system. Chapter 3 This chapter focuses on a select group of systems theories, and an analysis of the different theories presented by Skyttner (2006) indicates that Laszlo’s natural systems theory should have precedence in the scientific community. In my opinion, the theory of the concept of order presented by the natural systems theory is the best way that explains many man-made systems, which include scientific systems. Therefore, it is expected that the theory gets precedence over other theories. In contrast to this, the typology system presented by Checkland is the most appropriate for the management and business area. The main implication of the recursive systems theory to the business field is got from the underlying assumptions of the theory. According to Skyttner (2006), the recursive systems theory expects that every viable system in an organization contains and is presented in a viable system. Therefore, the organization is made of many parts that serve to complement the whole system, which means that an organization can benefit from the integration. The concept of the noosphere is especially relevant in the geopolitics systems model, which postulates the presence of cosmic teleology and purpose in every system. One of the propositions presented by Cook is that every organization in the universe deserves the name system, and as an example, he states that the atom is the smallest unit that deserves the name system. Chapter 4 The first definition of information that can be got from the text is the idea of a fact that defines form (Skyttner, 2006). This means that information is a fact that determines the activity of a recipient and provider. Skyttner (2006) also defines information as a fact that reduces the maladjustment between the system and the environs, meaning that the presence of information reduces the disparity between the environment and an existing system. The definition of information can also be broken down into two parts: selective information, which refers to the measure of information in relation to the signal and the receiver; descriptive information refers to small bits that, when added up, gives a relevant meaning to the user. The text also describes a sign as an entity that represents another entity, and a signal as a sign made of a physical phenomenon to transmit information. An analysis of the three conceptual levels indicates that Shannon’s communication theory is relevant to the syntactic level, since it is made of mathematical applications. From reading this chapter, the game of twenty questions can also be answered, which indicates that the least possible number of questions that can be posed to get the correct answer is 2 questions. From an analysis of pragmatic redundancy (Skyttner, 2006), it is evident that a written message without redundancy increases the chance of information if one of the letters is ineligible. The concept of relative entropy can be used when analyzing the English language by studying the construction of the language and evaluating existing combinations. Finally, Skyttner (2006) states that block coding of a message is more efficient than single coding, since block coding reduces the number of binary digits used. Chapter 7 This chapter deals with Artificial Intelligence, and the first point proposed by Skyttner (2006) is that hardware is relatively unimportant in the Artificial Intelligence field. This is because the software and programs used are the critical part of the computer. The central processing unit of a computer is usually made up of transistors, and when the density of these transistors reaches a quantity of about a hundred billion, it is termed as having attained the human-brain equivalent. This term is coined from the approximate number of neurons in the human brain. In my opinion, despite the benefits of a computer, it should not be able to pass the Turing test. This is because the compute lacks the fundamental qualities present in a human brain, despite the presence of the human brain equivalent. The translating telephone presented by Skyttner (2006) in this chapter functions as a means of translating the language between two individuals at different ends of the language spectrum. The use of Esperanto as an intermediary link simplifies the translation process since it is less complex than normal, natural languages. The other factor that Skyttner (2006) deals with in this chapter is computer viruses, and in my opinion, it is never possible to find a completely harmless virus. At the present age, there is no known self-mutating computer virus, which indicates that computer technology still has some room to evolve. The evolution of computers and technology could somehow mean that Bolonkin’s view could turn out to be true. With the current state of technology, Bolonkin’s view on the future of humanity is viable, even though it is not a valid scientific hypothesis. Chapter 8 The organization exists as a system, and from an analysis of Skyttner’s contingency variables, it is evident that the four variables are sufficient to determine the whole future of the organization. The four variable presented by Skyttner (2006) define the whole relationship between the organization system. The organization is also defined in different ways, including the bureaucratic definition, which is pathologically characterized by the emphasis on rules and authority. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is defined as a continuous system. Therefore, it is impossible to attain the higher levels in the hierarchy of needs without achieving the lower levels. The authoritarian view that accompanies scientific management can be an explanation of the negative attitudes and reduction in production that usually accompanies the introduction of the management style. Power and authority are usually confused as meaning the same thing, but Skyttner (2006) differentiates between these two factors. The power that an individual has includes the ability to force other individuals into obedience, which implies an ability that is given. Conversely, authority means the ability of an individual to foster voluntary obedience. Considering the scope of this book, it is evident that the hierarchical organization makes the most sense, since the book focuses on the development of a constantly developing systems theory. The information system used by an organization determines the success or failure of the organization. Skyttner (2006) states that the modern organization is more reliant on advanced computer systems, hence the heavy reliance on information systems. The interaction between employees and the information systems ensures that the synonymous nature between the organization and information systems is continually developed. Chapter 9 Praxeology refers to the practical aspects of the decision-making process, and is usually divided into two parts, normative and descriptive praxeology. The main difference between these two elements is in the methodology; normative praxeology places emphasis on the methodology used in the decision-making process while descriptive praxeology does not place a reference to the methodology used. According to Skyttner (2006), the decision-making process is a trade-off between the conscious thought process and the subconscious. Therefore, the intuition is particularly important in acquiring a feel for a decision. A problem can be decided in different ways, with one of the methods being the dissolution of the problem. This can also be referred to as the redefinition of a problem, since it involves the changing the view of what is defined as a problem. The decision-making process is usually aided by different tools, and in this case, a computer without specialized software can be sued. In this case, the computer is used to analyze information to a small degree, after which the human being can finish the analysis. According to Skyttner (2006), the decision-making process in the military is usually influenced by a possible loss of life. Therefore, the main difference between civil and military decision support systems is in the speed. This means that the military decision-support systems are expected to work faster than civil decision-support systems. The preference of the brain writing process over the brainstorming process is influenced by the mode of idea passing, in this case, the written process ensures that an individual has the opportunity to arrange the ideas coherently. Chapter10 The area of informatics is usually specific to computers and information systems. Therefore, it is expected that general scientific theories would not suffice to explain informatics. The information systems area of study is enormous and complex, and as a result, requires the quick and efficient correction of errors in the system. In this case, self-healing refers to the process in which an information system is able to automatically isolate faults and repair the faults (Skyttner, 2006). The development of a telecommunications network can be likened to the development of new social contacts, since an individual has to learn the new area and make acquaintances. In the same respect, the development of a telecommunications network involves the introduction of new contacts and linkages. The placement of a satellite in space depends on the fundamental characteristic of the satellite, whether geostationary or orbiting. In this case, it should not be possible to place a geostationary communication satellite in a polar-orbiting plane. The main developmental idea behind the development of the Internet was the development of a communications network immune from nuclear war (Skyttner, 2006). This means that the original idea was for the creation of a network that would not be brought down by the destruction of one node. The main problem of the Internet from the authorities’ point of view is the regulation of harmful material, and from the individual point of view, the loss of privacy to the Internet and hackers. The Internet is a tool for the promotion of persona freedom since it lets individuals express themselves without fear of reprisal. This has led to cyberspace replacing outer space as an area of interest, since cyberspace has the unlimited potential of revealing information. Chapter 11 The main difference between systems design and systems improvement is that systems design refers to the introduction of an entirely new system (Skyttner, 2006), while systems improvement involves work on an existing system. Social problems usually have different definitions from different individuals. Therefore, the solution of social problems does not necessarily eliminate the problem. This means that the solution of social problems usually introduces more repercussions than solutions. Breakthrough thinking requires an individual to ask about the purpose of an organization’s purpose, which makes sense, since an individual can then gauge the true objective of an organization. According to Skyttner (2006), solving a problem involves finding a solution among a pool of solutions that eliminates a problem, while resolving a problem involves finding a solution that is good enough for the problem. Reference Skyttner, L. (2006). General Systems Theory: Problems, Perspectives, and Practice. (2nd ed.). Hackensak, NJ: World Scientific Publishing Company. Read More