Embracing Defeat by John Dower - Assignment Example

4. Embracing American modernity? In his book Embracing Defeat, John Dower proposes that the devastation of World War 2 discredited the experiment with the ‘Japanese modern’ and, as a consequence, facilitated the adoption of the American democratic modernity imposed by the Allied Occupation. (Gluck also mentions this in ‘Japan’s Modernities’.) Consider this in the context of the rise of militarism from 1930s and the concept of the ‘Dark Valley’. Name Course Date Japan’s destruction in World War II was almost complete and it is ironic that it became an economic powerhouse several years thereafter. With about 3 million of its population and a quarter of its national wealth gone by the end of the war,1 Japan was at a loss. It lost former colonies, which at the same time form part of its market, from where it sourced its cheap materials and labour. Aside from that, its infrastructure and production machineries and equipment perished diminishing its production to just merely 20% of the 1937 level.2 The Allies, particularly the Americans took advantage of this situation to compel Japan to accept a reformation that would bring the state within democratic conditions patterned after the West. The reforms brought about and imposed by the Allies on the Japanese benefited many Japanese citizens from farmers to labourers and it was not surprising, therefore, that the Japanese people accepted the American democratic modernity wholeheartedly. Author John Dower, however, suggested the view that Japan’s utter destruction in WWII was responsible for ending the country’s experimentation with modernity paving the way for its acceptance of the American version of modernity. In a way, this observation made sense because historically, Japan had always rejected anything that was associated to failure and by parallelism and by extension the failure in WWII was a failure of the past modernity and must be rejected. Nonetheless, this could be only partly true considering that the so-called experimentation with Japan modernity conducted in the pre-war years did not resonate well with the Japanese society because of its repressive nature and the opportunity to get rid of it was offered by the American democratic modernity. Thus, the success of the reformation, including the acceptance of American modernity, may have also been engendered by the willingness of the people to leave it behind. Modernity and the Rise of Militarism in the 1930s The determination of the validity of Dower’s claim rests in part in determining the modernity that was in placed prior to the defeat of Japan in 1945. A resort to Gluck’s article on Japan’s modernities may assist in this respect. Carol Gluck divided Japan’s modernisation into periods and collectively called them Japan’s modernities. The first era that initiated modernisation was the ‘national modern,’ which occurred during the Meiji Restoration from the 1850s. In this era, according to Gluck, modernisation became one of the consequences of reconstructing Japanese society as a “unified, centralized state with the trappings civilization as the nineteenth-century West defined it.”3 In other words, the Meiji Era deliberately adopted Western modernisation, although imbibing it with unique Japanese elements, as evidence that it had finally advanced as a nation-state. The second Japan modernity era, according to Gluck, was the period beginning in the 1900s and up to the end of the WWII – an era where Japan became the first Asian country to exercise imperialism, particularly against China. Post-WWII, Japan’s modernity largely constituted reforms and correcting the errors of the past modernity. Evidently, the relevant era for the purpose of validating Dower’s claim is the second modernity between the years 1900 and 1945. The period is prominent for hosting two global wars that was separated only by more than two decades – the WWI in 1914 to 1918, and the WWII in 1939 to 1945. Japan’s modernity prior to its defeat in WWII is, thus, tied closely to war and its quest for imperialism. According to Gluck, a confluence of events had engendered a sense of urgency that justified the evolution of a modernity that was more focused on society than anything else. The national modernity that took root in the Meiji Era had generated social ills that became apparent at the turn of the 20th century. The social problems engendered by the shift from a largely rural life to a highly urbanised one and from an agricultural focus to industrialisation required drastic measures. These generated overcrowding, high unemployment rates, and increasing demand for basic necessities. The Great Depression that began in the US created a ripple effect that impacted on Japan economy and exacerbated the urbanisation-generated social problems. On the other hand, the Sino-Japanese war before the turn of the century added a dimension on the Japanese psyche that created a consciousness for territorial protectiveness. All these factors helped to pave the way for a fascist Japan.4 The Manchurian Incident, which saw the victory of Japan in their invasion of Manchuria, had been regarded as a turning point in Japanese policy-making inspiring a sense of nationalistic fervour that justified urgency for rising militarism.5 However, Americanization has also seeped in into Japan during this period in various forms, including twentieth-century capitalism, which were embraced by the Japanese because of its efficiency and liberating effects on one hand, and criticised for its superficiality and materialism, on the other.6 In industry, Fordism and Taylorism became prominent, and the American pop culture of jazz and Hollywood movies made its way into that Asian country. Even women’s culture was influenced by Americanization. Japanese women sported bobbed hair, short critics and more open about their sexuality. All these clashed with the ideal Japanese woman who was both a wise mother and a good wife promoted and embedded in the Japanese culture by the Meiji Era. The ‘New Woman’ by 1910 was educated, independent and a feminist, according to Gluck, and was largely considered a threat to Japanese culture, which stood to be the casualty of Americanization in the 1900s. 7 A cartoon made during the war that purportedly represented Western modernity illustrated this perspective: an old woman combing her hair from which flakes were falling and each flake had labels, such as ‘extravagance,’ ‘materialism,’ ‘money worship,’ and ‘liberalism,’ amongst others.8 However, the 15 years prior to 1945 saw a period of militarisation and repression in Japan. By the end of WWII, Japan had engaged in a fifteen-year war from 1930 to 1945. The war embraced the Manchurian Incident in 1931-32, the China War in 1937-45 and the Pacific War in 1941-45.9 This period is referred to as the ‘dark valley’ and was characterised by militarisation and repression.10 One of the highlights of Imperial Japan was the forced observance of rituals that celebrated the nation and imbibe a sense of nation on all its subjects. During the celebration of Japan’s 2,600th year, for example, subjects had to observe one ritual for every month the entire year. Imperial tombs and shrines were given significant focus and their maintenance provided citizens training by promoting volunteerism for the purpose of beautifying and expanding the areas on which they stood. For example, volunteer labour brigades worked on the roads leading to mausoleum of Emperor Jimmu.11 The 15-year period prior to 1945 saw the rise of fascism in Japan triggered by the confluence of factors earlier cited. The suppression of Western imperialism and Communism alongside expansionist movement abroad was the new goals of fascist Japan. To re-establish racial purity, there was a renewed focus on emperor cult that originally started in the Meiji Era 12 and cultural uniqueness.13 During this period, the government worked hard to gather support for the war against China. Local subcommittees were organised for this purpose. Campaigns to save money and unnecessary luxuries, worshipping at shrines, and elimination of pop culture, such as the sporting of bob hair, permanent waves and cosmetics, were launched.14 Repression became a significant characteristic of the period. Censorship through media manipulation was conducted to prevent ‘dangerous thoughts’ from seeping into Japanese psyche. Thus, the number of newspapers and magazines allowed to publish were limited. Radio, on the other hand, was placed under the control of the state and it was used primarily to encourage civic-mindedness and broadcast news approved by the government. In 1939, the military government imposed film laws that controlled the contents of movies and imposed limitations of film subjects. The only subjects encouraged were those depicting national policy, the spirit of sacrifice and proper social behaviour. The mobilisation efforts for war was also embedded in education through radio broadcasts and ethic textbooks, which promoted the uniqueness of Japan and at the same time portraying the war against China with physical training and marching inculcated into the curriculum. Community service, such as street cleaning and charcoal gathering became a part of student extracurricular activities. The subject of English was also dropped in the curriculum during the war to utilise student time for activities in support of the war. 15 To impress its hostility against the West, Western modernity was rejected in the late 1930s and early 1940s. Japanese moral superiority and purity were highlighted by illustrating the difference between Western expansionism and Japanese expansionism with the former aimed at imposing itself against its conquered regions and the latter to save Asia from Western imperialism. This propaganda is evident from the songs created during the war, such as the ‘Flowers of Patriotism’ which used the images of cherry blossoms along the sides of Mt. Fuji, and red plum blossoms, crimson camellias, and chrysanthemums to represent Japanese purity and patriotism.16 Conclusion: The Adoption of American Democratic Modernity Post-WWII Dowers’ proposition that its defeat in WWII facilitated Japan’s embrace of American democratic modernity imposed by the Allies and dishonour its own pre-war version of modernity may be true, but as victors of the war, the Americans had the power to dictate the terms of the surrender with which the loser must accept with resignation. The Japanese were in no position to assert themselves with their country at the verge of total collapse with 3 million of its people dead, a quarter of its wealth gone and 90 of its cities bombed. 17 This was illustrated by the imposition of the Constitution draft by the Americans on the Japanese. The draft also incorporated many provisions on human rights guarantees patterned after the American Constitution. Although the Japanese ministers were of the opinion that it was unacceptable and, thus, attempted to alter several provisions, they ultimately had to accept the original draft at the insistence of the Americans.18 In addition, even the Japanese citizens were impressed with the way the Americans behaved when they entered Japan right after its surrender. This could also factor in into the willingness of the Japanese to discard the government imposed modernity and embrace the American version albeit it was likewise forced on them. Tipton described Japanese impression of American soldiers whose tall and well-built physique, overall looks and superior weapons gave the impression that they were better off than their Japanese counterparts. The Americans also handled themselves well during the surrender phase of the war and elected to free the Japanese emperor from any liability for the war. Moreover, the promise of democracy was ultimately met after disarmament through an order that repealed Japanese laws that restricted the freedom to organise and the right to free expression. American efforts at reformation were also assisted by Emperor Hirohito who lent his presence by touring the country during the period,19 perhaps in gratitude to the Americans for sparing him from liability for the war. Labour also benefited significantly from the reformation instituted by the Allies as they became free to organise themselves, which they took advantage of so that by the end of 1946, 5 million workers already belonged to a union. The discrimination against blue collar workers was eliminated as a result, such as the elimination of separate dining halls for blue collar and white collar workers. Japanese farmers also gained a lot from the reformation because of the elimination of the tenancy law and a comprehensive redistribution of land was conducted. All of these helped in the spread and acceptance of Western democratic ideals.20 Dower’s suggestion that Japan’s defeat in 1945 resulted in the discrediting of Japanese modernity of the pre-war period may be partially true, but it could not be the sole reason. The pre-war period was a period of militarisation and repression and many practices tied to Western modernity were prohibited. This is itself was an impetus to discard the pre-war modernity and embrace American democratic modernity, which was a complete opposite of the repressive regime. It is evident that the reforms instituted by the Allies was met with relief by many Japanese from farmers to labourers and there is no doubt that so was American modernity. References Dower, John. Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II. W. W. Norton & Company, 2000. Dower, John. “The Useful War,” in History of Contemporary Japan since World War II, edited by Edward Beauchamp. Routledge, 1998. Fletcher, W. Miles.”The Fifteen-Year War,” A Companion to Japanese History, edited by William Tsutsui. Victoria, AU: Blackwell Publishing. 2007. Gao, Bai. “The Postwar Japanese Economy,” in A Companion to Japanese History, edited by William Tsutsui. Victoria, AU: Blackwell Publishing. 2007. Gluck, Carol. “Japan’s Modernities, 1850s-1990s.” In Asia in Western and World History, A Guide for Teaching Embree, edited by Ainslee and Carol Gluck, 561-593. New York: ME Sharpe, 1997. Large, Stephen. “Oligarchy, Democracy and Fascism,” A Companion to Japanese History, edited by William Tsutsui. Victoria, AU: Blackwell Publishing. 2007. Ruoff, Kenneth. Imperial Japan at its Zenith. Ithaca, US: Cornell University Press, 2010. Tipton, Elise. “Intellectual Life, Culture and the Challenge of Modernity,” in A Companion to Japanese History, edited by William Tsutsui. Victoria, AU: Blackwell Publishing. 2007. Read More