The Unknown Nation: Australia After Empire - Literature review Example

AUSTRALIA IS LOCATED IN ASIA BUT IS NOT PART OF ASIA By and Submission Introduction Australia is a continent by itself that borders Asia. Australia has, throughout history, continued to engage with the Asian region in many aspects of life; including trade and social life. About half of the exports from Australia go to East Asia and approximately 38 percent of their imports come from Asia (Christiansen, Kirchner, & Murray, 2013, p.16). Moreover, a significant part of Australian investment goes to East Asia, amounting to approximately 13.5 percent of Australia’s foreign investments (Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2004, p.4). Immigration has also significantly connected the two countries with approximately 25 percent of immigrants in Australia coming from East Asia. Similarly, a significant percentage of the number of foreign students in Australia comes from Asia (Jones, & Smith, 2006, p.22). Discussion One of the key aspects of the Australian international policy has been its increasing interaction with East Asia. Based on these relations, the Australian government, in the 1990s, instituted an inclusive program of diplomatic, political, cultural and economic dialogue (Paul, 1998, p.24). This was based on the perception that the protection and broader national interests of Australia were fulfilled by active communication and cooperation with Asia. Security is another factor that makes Australia to be an Asian locale. Following the cancellation of the Indonesian treaty and the economic crisis, the military joint exercises between Australia and Asia have declined (Keating, 1996, p.26). However, Australia continues to be part of the ASEAN regional security forum as a security organization of the region. There is also a significant number of Asian expertises in Australia. This has created a long-term relation and a diplomatic process linking Asia and Australia. Clearly, Australia is located in Asia but has never been part of it. Asia and Australia are profoundly different in almost all aspects of life. For instance, Australia is among the most affluent regions of the world while Asia is among the poorest global regions (Dever, 1997, p.34). Australia is also rated as the least densely populated on the planet while Asia is among the most densely populated regions of the world. With regard to culture, Australia is more oriented to the West, imitating many cultural practices from Britain and the United States (Curran, & Ward, 2010, p.32). The social life of Australians depicts a transplanted modern society with little traditions of its own. On the contrary, Asia remains traditional in many aspects, with civilizations and histories stretching back to ancient centuries. Politically, Australia is also different from Asia. The former is a liberal pluralist democratic society while majority of Asian politics are populist in nature. Australia accords much importance to the rule of law and treaties connecting individuals and societies. On the contrary, Asia mainly focuses on the maintenance of social harmony and the adoption of consensus in dispute resolution (Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2004, p.24). With the differences in mind, Australia experiences numerous challenges in its establishment of a connective discourse with Asia and its constituent states. propinquity has not been a major factor in the mentality of many Asians in their consideration of what is Asian and what is Australian. If that were the case, then Russia would also be considered part of East Asia (Christiansen, Kirchner, & Murray, 2013, p.36). By asking the question of ‘what’ is Asia and not ‘where’ is Asia, it is undoubtedly clear that Australia is not and has never been in a position to demarcate the Asian boundaries in either cultural or geographical aspects. From the early to mid 1970s, the Australian foreign policy significantly changed and shifted to coalition building and multilateralism. There was also the establishment of a collective security framework. Australia referred to itself as a middle power and viewed itself as a region with democratic liberal traditions that could act and influence the larger powers. In the 1980s, many parts of Asia were experiencing exceptional growth and had more disposable income than never before. This was the first moment of interaction between Asia and Australia since most of the Asian countries could easily afford Australian-made goods and commodities (Christiansen, Kirchner, & Murray, 2013, .22). Australia stopped appearing like a foreign state to Asia since residents of the two continents could easily cross the borders and buy goods from one another at local prices. Historically, the direction and content of the direction of Australia and its relation with Asia has reflected a range of international and domestic forces. For instance, the participation of Australia in struggle against communist uprising in Malaysia took place within the overarching cold war framework along with its affiliated premeditated commitments. During the same period, ties between Australia and Asia tightened, with the establishment of Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) as well as the Asian Regional Forum (ARF) (Christiansen, Kirchner, & Murray, 2013, p.16). The co-operations helped to cement the relationship between Australia and Asia and placed Australia at a central position in issues affecting Asia. In the 1970s, based on new restrictions placed by the EEC on the European countries and higher taxes on goods importation to America and Europe, the Asian trading markets increasingly became close to Australia. At the same time, the pacific markets started opening up. After the end of WWII, Australia gradually increased its exports to parts of Asia. By the mid 1970s, Asia had overtaken Britain as the chief export market for Australia (Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2004, p.4). During this period, more than 25 percent of Australian exports went to Asia, as opposed to approximately 11 percent of the exports that went to the West, especially Britain (Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2004, p.15). By the mid 1980s, the Australia-Asia relations had gone a mile further with more than 55 percent of the Australian mineral exports being sent to East Asia (Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2004, .6). At the same time, approximately 46 percent of iron and coal being used in Asia came from Australia. Towards the end of Vietnam War, Australia further extended its exports to East Asia after new trade agreements were made with other countries like Taiwan and South Korea. Australia has also been considered as part of Asia based on relations that developed following the abandonment of the ‘White Australian’ rule of the 1970s (Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2004, 22). The later instigated the arrival of refugees of Asian origin and also allowed Asian residents to obtain Visas to visit Australia with no border restrictions. The end of the ‘White Australian Policy’ implied that Asia could pursue better ambassadorial relations with Australia. Another factor that symbolically inscribed Australia in the Asian continent is the post-war relationship between Australia and Vietnam. In order to effectively separate foreign policy decisions, Australia initially disagreed with the American policy towards the end of Vietnam War. The Australian government demonstrated its full support for Asia by sending troops and financially supporting reconstruction of Vietnam. The fact that many Asian refugees had been settled in Australia after the Vietnam War helped to sustain cordial relations and promoted collaboration between Asia and Australia (Keating, 1996, p.24). In order to escape persecution, many of the Asian refugees in Australia in the 1970s had left behind relatives. In the late 1970s, the Australian government set up the Vietnamese Family Migration Program that helped reunite separated families. The number of Asians living in Australia more than doubled from 10, 000 to 20,000 by the end of 1980s (Keating, 1996, p.2). By centering itself in the affairs of Asia instead of viewing Asia as a different continent with its own affairs, Australia has helped to change the perception of the world on the relations between itself and Asia. The Vietnam War helped to bring Australians out of their Anglo-centric culture to the apprehension that they had a greater part to play in Asia and a lesser role to play in Europe. The longstanding distrust and fear of East Asia has led to a new era of trade and cooperation. Years after the end of Vietnam War, it has now appeared clearly that cooperation is possible even between continents and countries with contrasting ideologies. Presently, more than 60 percent of Australia’s exports go to Asia (Keating, 1996, p.25). Since the establishment of the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) in 1989, Australia is now strongly established as one of the closest allies of Asia. Trade barriers between Asia and Australia have been significantly reduced with the establishment of open import and export market. Apart from being involved in the economic affairs of East Asia, Australia has also been overly committed to maintenance of peace and security in Asia. This has been demonstrated by her close links with member states of ASEAN (Association of East Asia) (Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2004, p.19). The cooperation was set by Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines and Singapore in the 1960s. It has been the major factor aiding in promotion of social, economic, technological and cultural cooperation among Asia and Australia. Through this forum, Australia and Asia have had a common platform for promotion of peace and diplomacy. Since the 9/11 attacks on the United States, Australia has liaised with other nation states to help bring peace and lower insecurity in Asia. Australia has also significantly impacted on the reduction and elimination of poverty levels in Asia. The latter has been enhanced by academic and research initiatives between the two continents (Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2004, p.18). Nevertheless, Asia is profoundly different from Australia with different contrasting disparities in many facets of life. The early history of Australia was dominated by western interests and outlooks, reflecting a large immigrant population. Nonetheless, the culture, practices and skin color of the two continents extend their differences (Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2004, p.4). Australia had difficulties establishing its discourse with Asia. Presently Australia has influenced Asia in many aspects, though it has never been an equal partner. If Australia was to become an integral part of Asia in the future, it will be a continent that has projected its own power into the region. No dialogue can successfully change Australia’s heritage and history or make a significant impression on the fundamental western outlook of Australia. Some scholars have speculated that Australia needs Asia more than Asia needs it. Despite its expectation to participate in regional forums, Australia should not expect to play any insider role of leadership in Asia. Australians have learned to live with Asians and this has helped to cement unity and cooperation in the region. In the eyes of many, the crude attempt of Australia to incorporate itself into the discourse of Asia has been executed in an approach of uninvited, boorish interloper with obvious differences. Asians have also been increasingly resentful in the cultural supremacy depicted by Australians and Asians in the former western colonies (Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2004, p.12). Australians are also resistant to change and are not ready to compromise what may feel to be a superior social and cultural outlook with the eastern outlook that many Australians would consider to be untimely inferior and subordinate. Conclusion For many years, the policy of Australia towards Asia has been controlled by cultural denial and the denial of the fundamental importance of social culture in both Asia and Australia. Many economists affiliated to Australia have argued that class issues are of much importance than culture. The discourses and perspectives of Australia that seek to explain the relationship of Australia and Asia in terms of culture are prominent and have helped to control diplomacy and foreign relations in the region. It is this relationship that researchers have used to define the relationship between Australia and Asia and to place Australia in a central position as far as the interests of Asia as a continent are concerned. It is the Australian culture that has helped to determine the political exclusion of Australia and its relations with Asia. Asians still identify themselves as part of the eastern civilization and not fully compatible with the westerners. Reference List Christiansen, T., Kirchner, E. J., & Murray, P. (2013). The Palgrave handbook of EU-Asia relations. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire, Palgrave Macmillan. Curran, J., & Wards, S. (2010). The unknown nation: Australia after empire. Carlton, Vic, Melbourne University Publishing. Dever, M. (1997). Australia and Asia: cultural transactions. Honolulu, Univ. of Hawaii Press. (Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, (2004). Australia-New Zealand & Southeast Asia relations: an agenda for closer cooperation. Singapore, ISEAS. Jones, D. M., & Smith, M. L. R. (2006). ASEAN and East Asian International Relations Regional Delusion. Cheltenham, Edward Elgar Pub. Keating, P. (1996). Australia, Asia and the new regionalism. Singapore, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Paul, E. C. (1998). Australia in Southeast Asia: regionalisation and democracy. Copenhagen, Denmark, NIAS. Rumley, D. (2001). The geopolitics of Australias regional relations. Dordrecht, the Netherlands, Kluwer Academic Publishers. Read More