Middle East Civilization - The Umayyad Dynasty - Assignment Example

The Umayyad Dynasty The Umayyad dynasty was the first Muslim dynasty ruling from Damascus during the period 661 to 750 B.C and was started in 661 by Mu’awiya, who was its ruler for the first twenty years. The office of the Caliph was held at the time by Uthman ibn Affan, who was a member of a prominent Umayyad family of that time. But he was a weak ruler, as a result of which rebellion broke out and he was murdered (www.mb-soft..com). Affan’s successor was Ali, Mohammed’s son-in-law who was propelled to the throne on the belief that only a member of the prophet Mohammed’s family had the right to such ascension. But Mu’awiya, who was at the time the governor of Syria and the first Umayyad Caliph, joined up with Amr, the conqueror of Egypt, to revolt against Ali and gained a significant advantage, which also consolidated his position as Caliph in the subsequent year when Ali was assassinated. In determining the successive four Caliphs for this dynasty, there were succession battles but after this, the principle of hereditary succession was established, which reduced the incidence of such battles (www.ucalgary.ca). When Mu’awiya died, he bucked the existing trend for the Caliph to be selected through an election and named his son Yazid as his successor. The Umayyads can be characterized as the first real Islamic State, and the empire which started out from Damascus, grew larger as more territories were conquered by the dynasty, namely North Africa, Spain and Central Asia (www.ucalgary.ca). North Africa was under Byzantine control, but this influence was already precarious; as a result, the attacks by the Ummayid dynasty led by Mu’awiya were successful in overthrowing the Byzantine era to usher in an era of Muslim rule. Central Asian territory extending up to the Indus river near India, also came under the Umayyid dynasty because the latter were able to capitalize on the internal strife existing among the various Turkish communities that ruled this area. The major reason for the annexation of central Asian territory was the desire to gain access into China in order to benefit from the silk trade that was being carried on in the region (www.ucalgary.ca). Spain was territory that was under the control of the Christians, ruled by the Visigoths. During the 8th century, the rulership was weak and this was exacerbated by the internal strife that also existed in the region, because a civil war was going on in Spain over the issue of who would be the next king. The invasion was led by Tariq who was able to successfully capture most of the territory of the Iberian peninsula so successfully that the rock on the southern tip of Spain was named Jabal Tariq or the mountain of Tariq, now known as Gibraltar (www.ucalgary.ca). The capital of the empire was set up at Cordoba in 717. The difficulties associated with the governance of Spain however, lay in its distance from Damascus, the capital of the Umayyid dynasty. As a result, effective governance was difficult since the governors of Spanish territories had a considerable amount of independence due to the distance and could not be controlled. This was also one of the reasons that subsequently led to the downfall of the Umayyid dynasty. Mu’awiya took over as the first Caliph of the dynasty at a time when civil war had been raging for a period of four years due to the weak and ineffective leadership provided by Affran and Ali; he was able to achieve some law and order by dividing the existing empire into small provinces that could be managed by a governor. This measure ensured that the existing discontent among the people was addressed, since the governors were able to pay greater attention to the needs of their constituents. Moreover, Mu’awiya also roped in the nomads and enrolled them in the military, so that some measure of control could also be maintained over them.(www.ucalgary.ca). Although overall, the Umayyad empire was Islamic, religion was not always the driving force behind the principles and policies off its rulers. During the time when the empire extended into territories in North Africa, Spain and central Asia, the leadership became less religious and more secular, because the job of administering a vast empire became much more important than focusing upon ensuring that people in the conquered territories were converted to Islam. The Dome of the rock which was completed in 691 BC was just one among the numerous religious buildings and palaces that were commissioned by the Umayyads, with the Dome of the Rock being commissioned by Caliph Abd Al Malik (www.bu.edu). While the expansion of the empire by the Umayyid dynasty undoubtedly led to the spread of Islam over a much wider part of the globe, it also led to problems with governance due to the sheer size of the empire and the vast distances between many of the territories and the capital of Damascus. Berbers and Turks were among the native tribes that were converted to Islam, but over a period of time they began to rebel against the Umayyid dynasty because they were being discriminated against as original non-Muslim peoples. Moreover, even among the Arabs, there was some measure of discrimination on the basis of class differences, which was the source of resentment among the lower classes (www.ucalgary.ca). The discontent brewing for many years in the captured territories finally resulted in several groups of enemies of the Umayyids gathering together to oppose the rulers. Notable among them was the coalition gathered by descendants from Mohammed’s uncle, Abbas. After one hundred odd years of rule by the Umayyid dynasty, Abbas finally succeeded in overthrowing the dynasty altogether and establishing a completely new one known as the Abbasid dynasty. Distinctive features of the Umayyid dynasty: The Umayyid dynasty is distinctive in that it was the first Muslim dynasty to be established – all the other dynasties only succeeded it. As a result, the Umayyid dynasty was the one responsible for the spread of Islam across many parts of the world. Secondly, unlike other rulers and dynasties that existed before it, the Umayyid dynasty was able to address the issues of civil strife that preceded it and bring about a resolution so that there was unity and integrity in the Islamic empire. Thirdly, the dynastic rule of the Umayyids also brought law and order into the territories for the first time because Mu’awiya was able to divide the captured lands into small provinces that could be looked after by individual governors. Fourthly, the dynasty was also responsible for developments in art and architecture; the most notable architectural achievements were the Dome of the Rock and the Great Mosque of Damascus.(www.muslimheritage.com). The Umayyids introduced some distinctive and innovative architectural features, such as minarets and the use of arches. The minarets were derived from Syrian Christian traditions whereby early Muslims who lived in Damascus used to pray in a distinctive looking building that had four projections – one at either end and people would climb on to them in order to make adhans. During the Umayyid dynasty, these projections at either end also appeared on mosques and became known as minarets. The arches were horseshoe shaped arches surrounding the court and they became another characteristic feature of Muslim mosques after the Umayyid era, along with a dome that was built over the central area of the courtyard across which it was necessary to walk to reach the mihrab.(www.muslimheritage.com). The mihrab was a small alcove within which a light was placed and this symbolized God’s light before which the worshippers bowed to pray. Umayyid art was also distinctive for its “striking and vibrant ecelectism”, giving rise to a variety of distinctive and decorative styles and motifs (www.discoverislamicart.org). The other dynasties that came after the Umayyid dynasty were only following in its footsteps but were not able to achieve quite the status and stability that the Umayyids enjoyed. The Abbasids that immediately followed the Umayyids retained the art and architecture of the period but were not able to achieve the long period of rule for over a 100 years. The safavid dynasty which followed later spread primarily in Iran and was another Islamic dynasty; however its roots lie in the Sufi order. It was originally comprised of Sunni Muslims, but later moved into the Shia order. The Fatimid dynasty on the other hand, was an Arab Shia dynasty that existed primarily in Egypt, Malta and Sicily. But it is significant to note that these were all dynasties that followed after the Umayyid; hence the Islamic heritage owes its origin and heritage to this pioneering dynasty. The contribution made by this dynasty to art and architecture is also unmatched by the other dynasties that followed; because they only replicated and propagated the distinctive features like minarets and arches that were original innovations originating with the Umayyids. References: “Architecture under Umayyid patronage (661-750)”, Retrieved November 25, 2009 from: http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=273 “Under the Umayyids: 661-750”, Retrieved November 25, 2009 from: http://www.bu.edu/mzank/Jerusalem/p/period4-2.htm “Umayyads”, Retrieved November 25, 2009 from: http://mb-soft.com/believe/txh/umayyad.htm “The Umayyads”, Retrieved November 25, 2009 from: http://www.discoverislamicart.org/exhibitions/ISL/the_umayyads/introduction.php “The Umayyad Dynasty”, Retrieved November 25, 2009 from: http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/caliphate/umayyad.html “Umayyad politics and administration”, Retrieved November 25m 2009 from: http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/caliphate/umPolitics.html “The collapse of the Umayyid dynasty”, retrieved November 25, 2009 from: http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/caliphate/umCollapse.html Read More