Early medieval history of Ireland - Term Paper Example

Research Proposal: Early Medieval History of Ireland Introduction Due to the relative isolation of Ireland by water, this magical land has been able to keep many of its medieval treasures intact, unlike most parts of Western Europe. With the fall of the Roman Empire, much of Western Europe lost its scholarship as Christianity tended to withdraw into its own sanctuaries. The medieval church in Ireland was powerful and brilliant. Splendid reminders of early Irish Christianity can be found in the stone, high crosses that melded the countrys pagan roots with the newly imported faith. Unfortunately, not much can be said about pre-Christian era in Ireland. What little is known of this period comes from a few references in Roman writings, Irish poetry and myth, and archaeology (Raftery, 2005:134). However, traditions have it that the earliest inhabitants of Ireland, people of a mid-Stone Age, or Mesolithic culture, arrived sometime after 8000 BC, when the climate had become more hospitable following the retreat of the polar icecaps. At this time, settlements of Mesolithic hunter-gatherers have been found at about half a dozen sites scattered throughout the country: Mount Sandel in County Londonderry (Coleraine); Woodpark in County Sligo; the Shannon estuary; Lough Boora in County Offaly; the Curran in County Antrim; and a number of locations in Munster. It is thought that these settlers first colonised the northeast of the country from Scotland. Although sea levels were still lower than they are today, Ireland was probably already an island by the time the first settlers arrived by boat (Herren, 1968:5; Brown, 1984:315; Ó Croínín, 1995). The purpose of the proposed study is to question and explore two long-established and widely acknowledged ideas about the nature of literacy and the medieval history of Ireland, and to attempt to bring together a new appreciation of how both concepts intertwine. Research Purpose Ireland was the only Celtic land where the Roman eagles never flew. She alone carried down into the Christian middle ages the political, social and cultural traditions of central and Western Europe unbroken by the impact of the Mediterranean civilisation. And she alone stood outside both the official and unofficial knowledge of the Roman world. (Kenney, 1966:129). This image of Ireland in the early medieval period has persisted for many years, and only the relatively recent advances in archaeology, palaeography, and historiography have begun to demonstrate that the situation was in fact quite different. Although the image of Ireland as a lone bastion of Celticism on the fringes of the known world quietly advancing all that western society holds dear is romantic, it is now understood to be simply untrue. A similar situation has occurred with the premise that literacy is connected solely to reading and writing, and that the practice of such literacy is the natural evolution from oral traditions. This study therefore, seeks to explore the nascent theories about relations between Ireland and the classical world in the context of broadened understandings of literacy (Richter, 1996; Stevenson, 1989; Stevenson, 1995). The challenge of this work is therefore two-fold: the first challenge is directed towards the long-held belief that literacy unequivocally equals knowledge of reading and writing one or more grammatically defined languages. Apparently, this definition of literacy is far too simplistic for the cognitive and cultural ramifications of what it means to be literate. For the purpose of the proposed study, the use of the Multiliteracy theory would be advocated in addressing the overarching concept of literacy for both the present and perhaps more importantly, for the past as well. This theory was developed by a group of researchers seeking to address the forms of modern technology that challenge the paradigm that reading and writing alone constitutes literacy. By breaking down the cognitive process of creating, internalizing, and restructuring meaning, the Multiliteracy theory broadens the idea of literacy to include fluency in any semiotic realm that has a prescribed set of rules, referred to as a grammar. Thus, various forms of aural and visual culture, for example, can be defined as “texts,” and “literacy” can mean a type of fluency in such ‘texts’ (Kress,2000a: 155; Kress,2000b: 185). The second challenge of this paper is to the oft-repeated idea that early medieval Ireland is a land apart from the rest of Western Europe due to the fact that the island was never conquered by the Roman Empire. While it is true that there is no definite evidence that the Roman legions ever came to the land known as Hibernia, it is also true that Ireland was significantly impacted by the cultural influence of Rome (Ó Croínín, 2005). In actual fact, the Irish were connected with much of the Mediterranean world through cultural and commercial exchanges with Roman Britain and other areas of the Empire. Even after the Roman Empire fell, the continuing influence of the church was also a prominent factor in the influence of the classical tradition on early medieval Ireland. These connections become particularly important when we realize that portions of the classical tradition were passed down to the medieval period due in large part to the efforts of Irish monks and missionaries (Ó Croínín, 1995; Thomas, 1981). The impact of Ireland and the Irish tradition in conjunction with the level of classical influence on early and subsequently modern western literacy is widely accepted. However, by redefining the literacy present in early medieval Ireland we will able to explore more fully the connections between Ireland and the classical world and in turn the connections between their literacy and our own modern literacy. Applying the theory of Multiliteracy to the evidence of early medieval Ireland will allow for broad reconsiderations of literacy in the Irish medieval history. Medieval Irish and Multiliteracy Numerous historical contexts deserve reconsideration using the theory of Multiliteracy, the proposed study therefore seek to explore how the theory can be used to better understand and appreciate the rich literacy that characterised the early medieval Ireland. This period of Irish history featured remarkable changes in the material, social and intellectual culture of the inhabitants of the Islands before and after the influence of the Roman Empire and the introduction of Christianity. The foremost tenet of the Multiliteracy theory is the rejection of the idea that literacy means only reading and writing in a single language, and that this type of literacy constitutes the most prominent means of communicating meaning (Cope and Kalantzis, 2000:5). According to Cope and Kalantzis, the editors of and contributors to the primary work describing the theory, Multiliteracy is based on “the increasing multiplicity and integration of significant modes of meaning-making, where the textual is also related to the visual, the audio, the spatial, the behavioural, and so on” (Cope and Kalantzis, 2000:5). Additionally, Cope and Kalantzis suggest that the process of meaning-making, regardless of the medium, is not static: “language and other modes of meaning are dynamic representational resources, constantly being remade by their users as they work to achieve their various cultural purposes” (Cope and Kalantzis, 2000:5). In other words, meaning-makers use a variety of communication methods to convey their ideas, often changing these methods in the process. According to the Concise Oxford Dictionary, semiotics is “the study of signs and symbols and their use or interpretation” (Connolly, 2000). Humans use symbols of all types to communicate, from letters to the abstract shapes on a traffic sign. It is through semiotics, therefore, that we communicate and become “literate”. In order to break down the complicated semiotic process by which humans create and convey meaning, the Multiliteracy group devised a simplified system based on the concepts of Available Designs, Designing, and the Redesigned (Kress, 2000a). This study will examine primarily only one of the areas of Design, namely Linguistic Design in the forms of oral and written literacy due to the limitations of the evidence still extant for early medieval Ireland. From the Multiliteracy perspectives, literacy can be simply defined as any “socially made forms of representing and communicating” (Kress, 2000:157). With this as a foundation, we can add that a person who is literate is fluent in such forms in one or more Design areas. The artists and monks of early medieval Ireland, for example, were not only fluent in Linguistic Design in terms of oral communication, but they were also fluent in Visual Design in terms of communicating a variety of ideas through images and abstract designs. The historiography addressing written literacy in early medieval Ireland is dominated by two strains of thought. Currently historians generally agree that written literacy existed before the arrival of the Christian missionaries in the fifth century AD, although the extent and level of such literacy is hotly debated. Historians have also reached the consensus that after the arrival of Christianity, written literacy spread rapidly and flourished into sophisticated learning in both Latin and the Irish vernacular. The two ideas are intimately linked, since the extent of written literacy prior to the Christian conversion surely had a great impact on the later trend of writing in Latin and Irish (Stevenson, 1989:162). The ideas also present a forum for examining the foreign influences upon Ireland’s early written literacy, and links established as early as the first century AD provided continuous external forces for shaping Irish Multiliteracy. Ogam is the early script of Ireland consisting of primarily straight horizontal or vertical lines arranged in groups and usually inscribed on the edge of a standing stone; the dates for the use of ogam vary widely from as early as the second century AD to as late as the seventh century (Ó Croínín,1995:170; Stevenson, 1989:139). It is based on this knowledge that Stevenson asserts that when the Christian mission arrived in the fifth century AD, “the native learned classes of Ireland had been experimenting with literacy for something like two hundred years” (Stevenson, 1995: 17). Historians generally agree that the Christian mission to Ireland began in the fifth century, although this is where widespread consensus ends. The debates about St. Patrick, the earlier Bishop Palladius, the origin of missionaries and many other topics are quite lengthy. However, regardless of whether or not written literacy on a large scale predates Christianity or not, the new faith brought with it the means and impetus for an unprecedented spread of literacy. There are abundant theories about the origin of Christianity in Ireland. One theory states that Irish “colonists” living in western Britain but still in contact with Ireland may have acted as an avenue for the introduction of Christianity to the native Irish (Ó Croínín, 1995:18-19). Another theory follows the trail of St. Patrick as a kidnapped Roman-British citizen enslaved by Irish raiders. Though, Patrick noted that he was one of many such slaves, and some historians believe that a substantial population of British Christian slaves may have been responsible for part of Ireland’s initial knowledge of Christianity (Ó Croínín, 1995:19; Dumville, 1984:18). Interestingly, although prior to and during most parts of the first centuries AD, Ireland remained socially and culturally stable (Hughes, 1966:39), Ireland lacked a centralized authority for much of its early history, and this had a great impact on the spread and amount of change occurring throughout the island, this was especially true in terms of the Christian mission, who could not simply appeal to and work through a single system (Stevenson, 1989:150; Hughes, 1966:39). Unlike in Rome, Christianity in Ireland did not receive “the massive support of a public authority,” and this proved to be remarkably important for the later blending of native Irish and Christian traditions (Richter, 1996:156). The implication of this blending of native Irish and Christian traditions can be seen in two lights, one leading to the other; first, Irelands conversion to Christianity was unique. It was not completely Roman, and so the church in Ireland lacked that Roman flavour that characterised the rest of Europe. Secondly, with the fall of Rome and Christianity withdrawing into its own sanctuaries, the medieval church in Ireland remained. A major part of this cultural influences that affected Ireland before, and with Christianity could be better seen in connections with the wider world. However, the role played by Britain appears to be dominant, noting the fact that this connection with Britain served as the link for materials and ideas reaching Ireland from the wider world. The probability that Roman settlers were living in Ireland as early as the first century AD is demonstrated by the presence of Roman-type burials near the eastern coast of Ireland (Raftery, 2005:175-176). Evidence also exists to indicate that there were settlements of Irish people on the western coast of Britain during the early medieval period (Ó Croínín, 1995:18-19). One important fact worth mentioning here is that the medieval Irish love for learning, with or without Christian influence cannot be ignored, as reflected in their proficiency of her artist and monks, especially in the design of the illuminated manuscripts. Several of these manuscripts bear witness to the degree of multilitracy prevalent in this period. The Cathach of Colmcille is regarded as the earliest of the surviving manuscripts. The Cathach is a small book of 58pages believed to have been written by Columba (apparently, since Colmcille means Columba) in St. Finnian Moville around 560AD, though this appears to be legend. The Psalms in the Cathach are believed to be copied from the Gospel of St. Martin and written by Columba himself. Another great surviving manuscript is the Book of Kells, also known as the Gospel of Colum Cille. The first record of this manuscript is found in Kells, Co. Meath, Ireland in 1007, but others have suggested its origin as the Columban monastery on Iona, or even at Lindisfarne in Northumbria (Higham, 1994; Connolly, 2000). However, although neither written nor oral literacy was entirely dependent on the spread of Christianity in the medieval Ireland, it can be inferred that it was after the Christian missions that literacy became widely spread. Connections with Rome and the wider world gave early medieval Ireland a measure of globalization, and this brought in a wide range of Available Resources that added great depth to the native Irish culture and multiliteracy. Thus, with respect to the Multiliteracy theory, Ireland’s increased cultural and linguistic diversity contributed to its ability to create texts that were not only multilingual but also Multimodal (Kress,2000a). Written Sources The literary evidence for medieval Ireland and Britain is quite sparse compared to such contemporary societies as Frankish Gaul and the Byzantine East. These Irelands produced two major native writers in this period--the clerics Patrick and Gildas--and received few mentions in Continental chronicles. The historical narrative for Ireland is detailed for the late fourth century, but dwindles after the first decade of the fifth century and remains dark until the Northumbrian scholar Bede began compiling information for his Ecclesiastical History of the English People in the late seventh century. There are datable references to medieval Britain in contemporary documents such as the recording of two visits of St. Germanus of Auxerre to the island to fight Pelagianism in 429 (Prosper, Chronicon) and c.445 (Constantius, Life of St. Germanus 5.25), and a chronicle entry for the year 441 stating that at least a portion of the island had "passed into the power of the Saxons" (Gallic Chronicle of 452). The next securely datable events in British history begin with St. Augustines arrival in Kent in 597 (Higham, 1994; Ó Croínín, 2005). Fortunately, early medieval Irish law is a particularly rich source for the history of Ireland. Many texts from the earliest years of Latin and vernacular Irish written Linguistic Design survive to provide a glimpse of the institutions and society of Ireland in this period. They also provide an important resource for studying early Irish Multiliteracy. Gildas and Patrick are two important sources of information for Ireland and Britain. There are also a few other sources which, because they were written down later for the most part, must be used cautiously as evidence for the early medieval periods. A collection of 158 charters recorded in the Book of Llan Dâv, dealing mostly with land grants in southeast Wales, has been used to show the transition of Late Roman to Early Medieval estates. The earliest British vernacular bardic poetry, such as those verses attributed to Aneirin and Taliesin, is sometimes used to reconstruct "heroic" society from the late sixth century on. Bede, writing in the eighth century but drawing on much earlier material (including Gildas), give a few additional clues about the pre-Roman period (including the name of the "proud tyrant"--Vortigern). Another English source, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle composed in Wessex beginning in the ninth century, records Saxon victories over the British which may derive from earlier oral accounts. Two collections of British historical material from the ninth century, the History of the Britons (attributed to the Welsh monk Nennius) and the Welsh Annals, may likewise draw on some contemporary records from the late sixth century on. Finally, there is a vast body of Welsh genealogies and saints lives, the earliest of which is probably the Cornish Life of St. Samson written in the early seventh century (Higham, 1994; Ó Croínín, 2005). Implications of Study Early medieval Irish Multiliteracy is a crucial link between the classical tradition and the High Middle Ages. The Irish historical context from the first to the seventh centuries is one of the most important developmental periods in the history of Western European literature, language, and literacy in both the oral and the written form. This study therefore begins the quest into the much deeper potential for examining the history of literacy in early medieval Ireland. References Brown, Julian (1984), The Oldest Irish Manuscripts and Their Late Antique Background.” Ireland and Europe: The Early Church. Stuttgart, Ger.: Klett-Cotta, pp311-327. Connolly S.J (2000), The Oxford Companion to Irish History, London: Oxford University Press. Cope, Bill and Mary Kalantzis (2000), Introduction. Multiliteracies: Literacy Learning and the Design of Social Futures, New York: Routledge, pp3-8. Dumville, David N (1984), Some British Aspects of the Earliest Irish Christianity: Ireland and Europe: The Early Church. Stuttgart, Ger.: Klett-Cotta, pp16-24. 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