The Independence Movements of Nigeria and Algeria - Research Paper Example

?Running head: THE INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENTS OF NIGERIA AND ALGERIA The Independence Movements of Nigeria and Algeria Insert Insert Insert Instructor’s Name 14 OCTOBER 2011 Outline Introduction The first phase (1880s to 1900s) The second phase (1900 to 1930s) The third phase (mid-1930s to the 1940s) The fourth phase (mid 1940s to early 1950s) The final phase (1950s to 1960 independence) The Independence Movements of Algeria 1830 to 1900s 1920s to 1954 1954-1962: The Algerian War References The Independence Movements of Nigeria and Algeria Introduction: The political independence movements of Nigeria Nigeria, Africa’s most populous nation was formally colonized in 1900 with the proclamation of the two protectorates of Northern and Southern Nigeria that were later joined in 1914 to form a single territory of Nigeria (Falola, 2003, p.83). The Nigerian freedom struggle was a multidimensional effort that involved various Nigerian communities, popular classes, the intelligentsia, labor groups, youth, traders, and market women in order to securer political, economic, and cultural independence from the British colonial masters (Johnston, 2000). The Nigerian freedom movement achieved its goal in five wide phases: first phase (1880s to 1900), second phase (1900s to 1930s), third phase (mid-1930s to the 1940s), fourth phase (mid 1940s to early 1950s) which was a continuation of 1930s developments, and the final phase (1950s to 1960 independence). The first phase (1880s to 1900s) The early anti-colonial struggle was led and organized by the intelligentsia that were mainly descendants of former slaves who had returned to their homes in Lagos and other parts of western Nigeria . The intelligentsia was mainly educated elite who were socially and politically active, and mostly, they promoted their struggles through framework of ideas (Falola, 2003 p.83). At this stage, the nationalist intelligentsia advocated for grievances of various groups such as traders, ordinary citizens, and workers who being oppressed by the colonial masters, thus they mobilized social groups and formed political associations, pressure groups, nationalist movements and even formed political parties (Aborisade & Mundt, 2002). Among the notable events of this period was the religious and cultural nationalism between the 1880s and 1900s, through which the nationalist intelligentsia sought assertion of the normalcy and validity of African cultural usages, social norms, religious beliefs and practices, since the European Christian and colonial imperialist devalued African culture, viewing it as evil, inferior, and primitive (Coleman, 1971, p.175). Through their enlightenment, some African clerics objected to the Europeans missionaries’ view of African religious and spiritual beliefs. Thus, they opted out of the European controlled churches and even formed African independent church movements such as the United Native African Church (1883) and African Church Inc (1901), while other advocated for appreciation of African history and heritage, with people like Reverend D.B. Vincent changing his name to Mojola Agbebi (Coleman, 1971, p.175). The second phase (1900 to 1930s) This was period of early reformist political nationalism in which nationalist intelligentsia focused on struggle for political and civil rights, protesting against specific colonial policies and initiatives; thus, they were calling for reforms within the colonial system. The independence movements at this time mainly focused on changes within the established colonial system, while the call for self-rule and political independence was more of a long-term goal. The first independence movements emerged including the People Union (PU), the Aborigines Rights Protection Society (APRS), and the Nigerian Reform Association (NRA), and they mainly championed a single matter rather than the broad aspect of colonialism. During post 1914 period, nationalist also used the Press to attack the colonial rule, with journalist such as Horatio Jackson and others constantly and courageously critiquing colonial government. Additionally, this period was marked by increased level of interaction and organization among nationalists, leading to birth of various regional nationalism and pan-African nationalism movements. The most prominent of them was the National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA) that was formed by the west African intelligentsia at a meeting in Accra, Gold Coast in 1920 (Findley & Rothney, 2011, P.172). It had branches in four British colonies - Nigeria, Gold Coast, Gambia, and Sierra Leone. It advocated for election of members to the Legislative Councils; the establishment of municipal councils; the election of chiefs by the people; the establishment of a university in West Africa; and an end to racial discrimination in the colonial civil service (Findley & Rothney, 2011, P.172). Most of these demands were out-rightly rejected, though small gains were made, with Lagos town council becoming elective in 1920 and the four set aside slots being filled by African representatives. The developments in Lagos led to formation of Nigeria’s first political party, the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) in 1923, by nationalist such as Herbert Macaulay, Joseph Egerton Shyngle, Eric Moore, Dr. Adeyemo Alakija and others, advocating for various reforms of that time (Hayden, 2006). It dominated nationalist politics in Lagos up to late 1930s when it was eclipsed by the nationalist party of new generation of youth. Other most notable events of this period includes establishment of a branch the Universal Negro Improvement Association mainly focusing on pan-African economic nationalism and the 1929 Women’s War following resentment of warrant chiefs in the southeast. The third phase (mid-1930s to the 1940s) This period was marked by youth nationalism and the colonial masters already had consolidated its rule with more physical infrastructure and increased exploitation and control of several sectors of the economy. Generally, mobility among Nigeria increased and the number of literate population increased significantly. More powerful young Nigerians nationalist emerged, expanding their course to demand for constitutional advancement towards independence. Among the most notable young activist of the time included Nmamdi Azikiwe, Obafemi Awolowo, Ernest Ikoli, Samuel Akinsanya, H.O. Davies, and others (Falola, 2003). Azikiwe who had returned from his education in the United States introduced his brand of militant populist nationalism, which triggered political consciousness and generated a large following. Many youth organizations emerged including the Nigerian Youth Movement (NYM), the Union of Young Nigerians (UYN), the Nigerian Union of Students (NUS), and the Nigerian Youth Circle (NYC). The most outstanding of them was the NYM, which was formed in 1936 by Ikoli, Davies, Azikiwe, J.A. Tuyo, H.A. Subair, and Duro Emmanuel (Rotberg, 2004). It focused on fostering unity among Nigerians and working towards rapid political advancement. It also concentrated on working for political, social, and economic causes of various social groups such as laboring classes and Nigerian business class. It cause was further aided by it paper Daily Service and the 1938 Youth Charter it published. In 1938, it defeated the NNDP in elections for Lagos Town Council, but by 1941, it was rocked with internal crisis and interethnic politics leading to it collapse. The fourth phase (mid 1940s to early 1950s) Following the collapse of NYM, the NUS took initiative leading to formation of the National Council of Nigeria and Cameroons (NCNC), with Macaulay as president and Azikiwe as secretary general. The NCNC was a congress movement with organizational membership including political parties such as NNDP, youth movements, trade unions, ethnic, community and town unions, women groups, literary clubs and various occupational groups from allover the country (Aborisade & Mundt, 2002). It became a successful vehicle for advocating pan-nationalism and struggle for independence in the post war years, as it managed to convert the Nigerian nationalist struggle into a mass movement. During this period, labor movements were more awakened in their call for better conditions of their workers following the end of war. The labor movement under intrepid leadership of Michael Imoudu managed to stage the first general strike in Nigerian history, managing to win some concessions. The independent movements got additional support from the war veterans in their fight against colonialism. Following the pressure from nationalist movement, the colonial government planned to introduce a new constitution (Richard’s Constitution) in 1945. This constitution was very flawed and gave the colonial rulers more power. The NCNC campaigned against it, managing to further spread nationalist ideas and pan-Nigeria territorial awareness. In late 1940s, the NCNC was rocked with internal rifts that suppressed its cause. This period was also marked with increased political radicalism. The Zikist Movement (ZK) which was formed in 1946 by Kola Balogun, Nduka Eze, M.C.K. Ajuluchuku and Abiodun Aloba was the most prominent in adding a dimension of militancy to the nationalist struggles (Adebiyi, 2008). The final phase (1950s to 1960 independence) Due to increased militant radical activitism in this period, the colonial rulers put in place containment strategy that substantively weakened the pan-Nigerian nationalism movement and introduced new forces of division and regression. In 1949, a constitutional review process was initiated at all levels of governance cumulating to the 1950 general conference at Ibadan. This led to a new constitution of 1951(Macpherson Constitution) that was a quasi-federal constitution. It enabled a new House of Representatives to be established with regional government of Nigerian politicians being formed. This created room for various ethno-regional parties to emerge. During this period, there was resurgence of radical political current with emergence of parties such as CPPN, NLP, NEPU, and other small parties. In 1953, the 1951 constitution collapsed following disagreement over timing and date of independence, a thing that led to Kano riots in 1953 between the southerners and northerners. Efforts to reconcile that matter led to revised constitution (Lyttleton’s Constitution) in 1954. Under this constitution, elections were held, with NCNC and NPC forming a coalition government. This was followed 1957 reviews, which led to a national government made up of the NCNC, NPC, and AG, with Abubakar Tafawa Balewa as the Prime Minister (Falola, 2003). Then the Willink’s Commission led to attainment of regional internal self –government between 1957 and 1959 in effort of colonial strategy of creating regional and sectional forces over the national movement for political independence. Despite these set backs, the constitutional conferences of 1958 agreed that Nigeria should be independent in 1960. In 1959, a national coalition government was formed with Tafawa Balewa becoming the Prime Minister, Azikiwe the governor general, and Awolowo the Leader of opposition in the federal parliament, and eventually Nigeria was granted independence on October 1, 1960. The Independence Movements of Algeria 1830 to 1900s Algeria was colonized by French in 1830, and the complete conquest was accomplished in 1834 following France annexes of Algeria and taking control of all ports on the Algerian coast (Hayden & Bratton, 1992). The earliest resistance to French occupation was led by Abd al-Qadir in 1839 when he declared jihad against the French occupants. Initially, the French concentrated on forming agreement with local leaders in order to control the interior, instead of relying on direct force (Hayden, 2006). Abd al-Qadir capitalized on this system to build a strong force and shrewd tactics to fight the French. By 1847 support for Abd al-Qadir’s fight collapsed and he was captured and exiled to Damascus, Syria. Later, rebellion in Kabylia were easily stopped and the land given to European settlers. By 1879, the northern Algeria had been declared part of France with Europeans taking full citizenship while the Algerians could only acquire citizenship after renouncing Islam. By 1901, Algeria was granted economic autonomy by the colonial rulers. 1920s to 1954 This period marked the development of Algerian Nationalism by the young Algerians who had been assimilated and the French-educated elites. At first, they advocated for abolition Code de I’Indigenat that dispensed arbitrary, summary justice, access to wider education and to French citizenship with its privileges. Following the First World War, the Code de I’Indigenat was mitigated, special duties paid by subjects eliminated, and representation in local assemblies increased (Naylor, 2009, p.185). In the 1920s, the colonial government backtracked on the most of reforms it had initiated leading to collapse of the Young Algerian Movement, as members differed on their stand, with some planning to join the Muslim groups in their Islamic reformist causes while other choosing to pursue naturalization. Prior to this period, Muhammad Abduh, an Egyptian thinker had visited Algeria in 1903 spreading modernist ideals inspiring Abdelhamid Ben Badis and traditional Muslims groups. In 1931, Ben Badis organized a group of Islamic reformist called the Association of Algerian Muslim Ulama (AUMA) that sought to cleanse the society of vices such as alcoholism and gambling and establishing educational facilities to spread their teachings (Rabasa, 2004, p.153). The main goals of this movement were to reform Islam; lobby for equal status of Algerian with French; and recognition of Arabic as an official language. This movement sought to work closely with the government. The French government sought to control its activities, leading to arrests of its members, thus AUMA and French rulers increasingly became hostile to each other (Rabasa, 2004). The AUMA was joined in the struggle by other like-minded groups such as Federation of Elected Muslim Officials that was established by Amir Khalid. In addition to earlier grievances, these movements advocated for the right to form trade unions and political parties, freedom of press, and free compulsory education (Hayden, 2006). On realizing the gravity of this demands the French rulers attempted some reforms in March 1944 including: an ordinance that allowed Muslims to vote; become French citizens without renouncing their faith; the Code de I’Indigenat was abolished; establishment of anew assembly with Muslims taking half of the seats (Falola, 2002). The Europeans within the country were unhappy with the reforms, resulting into violence in 1945, and about one hundred Europeans being killed. The French army retaliated killing thousands of Algerians, with their leaders being arrested or fleeing into exile. Under this situation, a secret movement, the Special Organization, was formed by Algerian nationalist to procure weapons and prepare for the war. 1954-1962: The Algerian War The anticipated war broke out in November 1954 marking the beginning of Africa’s bloodiest war of independence. The war movement that was named Front de Liberation Nationale (FLN) was established in Egypt by the Algerian in exile. The FLN began guerrilla activities and terrorism mainly in the Algerian countryside. The French responded swiftly by sending more than 400000 thousand troops in the country. They also adopted guerrilla antics, torture, and counter-terrorism operations in reprisal attacks. The conflict also became more of a civil war between loyalist Algerian Muslims who supported French Algeria and the insurrectionist Algerian (Feraoun & Le Sueur, 2000). For example, the FLN with the Algerian National Movement (MNA) on several instances in Algeria engaged in conflict that greatly affected the foundations of the French Fourth Republic (1946-1958). Following collapse of the Fourth Republic, Charles de Gaulle returned to power in May 1958 forming the Fifth Republic with his Gaullist followers (Falola, 2002). De Gaulle was expected to press for continued occupation of Algeria but he favored Algerian independence and organized a vote to determine the fate of the Algeria in 1961. As a result, majority of Algerians chose independence. France initiated negotiations with the FLN and other warring groups leading to the march 1962 Evian Accords that led to independence of Algeria (Feraoun & Le Sueur, 2000). Ahmed Ben Bella, one FLN leaders became the first president of Algeria in the new government. References  Aborisade, O., & Mundt, R.J. (2002). Politics in Nigeria. Longman. Adebiyi, N.L.E. (2008). Radical nationalism in British West Africa, 1945—1960. Eisenhower Parkway: ProQuest. Coleman, J.S. (1971). Nigeria: background to nationalism. Los Angeles: University of California Press. Falola, T. (2002). Key events in African history: a reference guide. CT: Greenwood Publishing Group. Falola, T. (2003). The foundations of Nigeria: essays in honor of Toyin Falola. Africa World Press. Feraoun, M. & Le Sueur, J.D. (2000). Journal, 1955-1962: reflections on the French-Algerian War. University of Nebraska Press. Findley, C.V. & Rothney, J.A. (2011). Twentieth-Century World. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning. Hayden, G. (2006). African politics in comparative perspective. NY: Cambridge University Press. Hayden, G. & Bratton, M. (1992). Governance and Politics in Africa. L. Rienner. Johnston, R.J. (2000). The dictionary of human geography. 4th edition. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. Naylor, P.C. (2009). North Africa: a history from antiquity to the present. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. Rabasa, A. (2004).The Muslim world after 9/11. Rand Corporation. Rotberg, R.I. (2004). Crafting the new Nigeria: confronting the challenges. Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Read More