Cycling, Safety, and Health - Literature review Example

Health strategy Student’s Name: Instructor’s Name: Course Code & Name: Date of Submission Introduction Researches in the past decade have increasingly linked active travel and public health. In this regard, these cross-sectional studies have pointed to the fact that cycling and walking have a direct link to better health (Pucher & Dijkstra, 2003). This is supported by Dunn et. al. (1999) who inferred that cycling and walking for transportation is fundamental and as effective as other structured traditional exercise programs in the enhancement of physical activities, blood pressure and cardio-respiratory fitness. This matches the Australian Health priority areas. This strategy in the efforts to better the health among the members of the public is well documented and has been exclusively formulated and implemented in different parts of the world. For instance, Toronto has been successful in the implementation of diverse initiatives that are aimed at supporting active transportation which include the Walking Strategy and Green Standards. Moreover, cities including Montreal, New York and Chicago have embraced new objectives and targets for active transportation safety and/or mode shares which have been imperative stimuli for action. On the other hand, Toronto among other cities have been in the forefront in the adoption of policies that have been key in ensuring that cycling and walking are given significant consideration in the land use, facility and roadway planning (Toronto Public Health, 2012). On a wider perspective, Pucher and Dijkstra (2003) identified six categories of policies that have been predominant in Netherlands and Germany which have been fundamental in making cycling and walking both safe and attractive alternatives to driving. These are making urban design sensitive to the needs of non-motorists, stringent restriction of motor vehicles in the cities, exclusive traffic regulations enforcement protecting bicyclists and pedestrians, better facilities for walking and cycling, traffic calming of residential neighborhoods and enhanced traffic education for both the motorists and non-motorists. Is active transportation an ideal health strategy? As previously mentioned, there is a robust body of research in the contemporary world which has supported the link between regular physical activity and good health. The instigation of studies on this subject emerged as early as 1950s whereby it was found out that the reported cases of heart diseases among bus conductors who were occupationally physically active were far lower than among the bus drivers who were occupationally sedentary despite these two parties sharing similar occupational background (Cavill & Davis, 2007). In this regard, the subsequent analysis will be segmented into several sections aimed at giving a comprehensive evidential insight into the role of different health strategies, most notably active transportation in the enhancement of health status in diverse regions at the global scale. This will be in the efforts geared towards arguing for their inclusion in the national, regional and international health strategies. Cycling Roberts, Owen, Lamb and MacDougall (1996) noted that few studies have been conducted in the efforts to investigate the level of physiological and psychological impacts of cycling to health. In this regard, the imperative role played by this physical activity in the improvement of public health has not received adequate exploration. Despite this shortcoming, the limited studies that have been conducted in this subject has pointed to the fact that cycling is a feasible option for health –promoting transport and that policies and supportive initiative to encourage cycling can be fundamental in heightening the amount of physical activity in the population (Vouri et. al., 1994). However, it is worth noting that there are diverse rationales for the preference of cycling as opposed to other modes of transportation among people. According to a research cited in Roberts et. al. (1996), one third of the sample population chose cycling for work commuting in order to enjoy the fresh air and also to obtain fitness and health benefits from the activity. On the other hand, 30% of the respondent cited economic reasons and convenience as the major driving factors towards embracing cycling in their daily commuting. Against this background, it is apparent that the promotion of cycling as a favorable mode of transportation is chief in the minimization of the national economic allocation to healthcare, mostly when focusing on the aforementioned diseases among other in any given community. This can be achieved through efficient disbursement of information to the society which is linked to Ottawa Charter action area of strengthening community action. It is also worth noting that there is a strong interrelation between increased embrace of cycling in a given country to the reduction of environmental pollution. This is founded on the fact that bicycles pose limited or no environmental hazards which are primary sources of health problems in different populations when juxtaposed with motor vehicles. This fact is supported by Krag (2005) who determined that cycling is pollution free and thus healthy for users. On the contrary, Grabow, Hahn and Whited (2010) cited that 30-60% of pollution from automobile emissions which include but not limited to carbon monoxide among other volatile organic compounds (VOCs) occur in the first few minutes following ‘cold starts’ before the starting of effective functioning of the control devices. These emissions from the automobiles pose detrimental impacts to human health both in the short and long-term, not forgetting their eventual diabolical contribution to the heightened levels of global warming in the modern world. Thus, the effects of these emissions to human health results in the need for heightened national investment in terms of human capital, health facilities and drugs aimed at curtailing the health issues that emanate from them and the number of lives lost in these efforts cannot be ignored. This phenomenon can be surmounted with a greater focus on cycling as a cheaper and environmental friendly mode of transportation when compared to motor vehicles. The last health factor that is related to cycling as a form of active transportation is related to the risk factors. This is whereby the rate of injuries which are associated with cycling are far more limited when compared to those associated with high utility of motor vehicles. This fact is supported by Krag (2005) who determined that areas with high level of cycling are bound to be safer for both the cyclists and other road users than the areas which are dominated by cars. Moreover, traffic statistics have revealed that a non-car based lifestyle with heightened levels of cycling is often associated with minimal risk of mortality as a result of traffic accidents when compared to a car-based lifestyle. Against this background, it is evident that cycling is an ideal health strategy which has immense impacts in not only reducing the prevalence of diverse diseases associated with a sedentary lifestyle but also reducing environmental pollution related health issues as well as injuries emanating from risk factors associated with car-based lifestyle. Walking Bassett et. al. (2008) noted that in Europe and United States, walking is a predominant leisure time physical activity. In both of these regions, walking participation is high among all age groups with a high percentage of adults reporting having walked for exercise in the past 1-2 weeks. However, it is worth noting that despite the fact that this activity is widespread in both of the aforementioned regions, the Europeans often engage in the activity for utilitarian purposes, for instance, commuting to work, shopping and school trips. According to Travel Smart (2010), walking is endowed with diverse health related benefits, for instance, protecting the individual or collectives from illnesses like stroke, obesity, common types of diabetes and some cancers, relieving of stress, weight control and improves the generic sense of wellbeing. In addition, walking for one kilometer per day not only helps in keeping the individuals fit but also saves 150 kilograms of greenhouse emission per year. Better Health Channel (2011) determined that physical activity does not have to be done vigorously and for long periods of time aimed at improving one’s health. This is evidenced by a study that was conducted among inactive women which revealed that even minimal exercise-like 75 minutes of walking per week immensely improved the level of fitness when compared to non-exercising groups. There are several merits that are associated with walking as a form of health strategy when compared to cycling. This is analyzed in the subsequent section. Cycling or Walking? The most suitable health strategy Despite the fact that cycling and walking are often considered as alternative health strategy, walking has evolved to become more widely accepted over cycling based on several reasons. Firstly, walking aimed at attaining and maintaining physical fitness and health is associated with no financial investment, whether it is for leisure or commuting to work. In this regard, walking is more preferable across all economic classes even in the less developed countries where purchasing bicycles across majority of the population is less likely. Therefore, walking resulting to elevated physical activity is more cost-effective when juxtaposed with cycling due to the limited equipment needed. Secondly, Better Health Channel (2011) cited that walking can be done at any time of the day and at the individual’s own pace. In this regard, an individual can just get out and walk without worrying about some of the hazards which are associated with other more vigorous forms of exercise. In addition, the time flexibility is another merit that has been credited to walking as opposed to cycling. This is whereby there are minimal risks that are associated with walking when compared with cycling, for instance, walking at night which is less preferable to cyclists. Thirdly, walking as an alternative health strategy can be adopted across all age groups. In this regard, even the elderly people who are more prone to diverse diseases like diabetes and heart diseases can result in walking as a form of physical exercise. This latter group, as well as younger children who are not embedded with the cycling capacity can result to walking in the endeavor to attain and maintain physical fitness. Lastly, walking is an ideal health strategy in regions where cycling is unfavorable due to the topographical consideration, for instance, in extremely hilly areas or places with rough terrains. Correlation between physical activity and mental health Physical activity as a health strategy has for a long time been associated with physical wellbeing. This fact is supported by Atkinson and Weigand (2008) who determined that the interaction between physical activity and mental health has received lesser investigation. However, research in the realm of physical activity and mental health can be perceived to have encountered substantial growth in the recent decades. Against this background, the primary focus of research in mental health has been aimed at establishing a relationship between physical activity like walking and cycling and particular mood disorders, like depression and anxiety. This is best exemplified by Blumenthal et al. (1999) who determined that an exercise training program has equal effectiveness as standard antidepressant therapy in minimizing the level of depression among individuals who have been diagnosed with major depressive disorder. Another focus of in the mental health research has been on the effects of physical activity on particular populations, for instance, people with physical conditions, for instance, cancer, diabetes and the physically disabled as well as cognitive functioning of older members of the population. In this regard, research has pointed to the fact that physical activity is an effective strategy in enhancing the mental health of older adults. On a similar perspective, high levels of physical activity have been credited for the minimal prevalence of baseline depression in some regions (Atkinson & Weigand, 2008) In addition, based on the fact that heightened physical activity among individuals culminates in increased cardiovascular fitness, research has revealed that enhancement of cardiovascular fitness has a direct association with the improvement of cognitive functioning which includes but not limited to memory, motor function, attention and cognitive speed, most notably among the older adults (Atkinson & Weigand, 2008). Thus, this health strategy addresses the needs of sub-groups in the population, i.e. the old people. Obstacles to increased walking and cycling as a health strategy Mackett (2011) categorized these barriers into three primary groups which can lead to widespread impediments in the embracing these physical activities as health strategies both at the national and regional level. Firstly, lack of motivation has been cited as a major barrier to physical activities among different classes of people. In this regard, most individuals fail to see the essence of physical activities as a preventive intervention to various diseases previously mentioned and when this factor is coupled with inadequate health information leads to poor embracing of physical exercises among different classes of people. Secondly, difficulties in walking and cycling, mostly among the older people and the physically challenged people has also been cited as a major impediment to these physical activities. Mackett (2011) exemplified this phenomenon by citing Britain where an elevated proportion of the population is elderly and many of them have advanced difficulties in walking. Similarly, there are some people who have well-defined disability, both physical and mental which impede their cycling or walking efforts. Thirdly, the lifestyle and shortage of time among different people has also been cited as a chief barrier to walking and cycling as imperative health strategies. In this regard, many household mostly in the developed countries have adopted a car-oriented lifestyle which is founded on the fact that they are endowed with the capacity of affording enough cars to meet their travel needs. Similarly, most of these households have a wide range of activities and locations which necessitate the use of cars (Mackett, 2011). On the other hand, based on the fact that most of the people in the contemporary world are engaged in diverse activities aimed at maximization of their financial benefits to match the heightening cost of living resulted in busy schedules and limited time to allow their engagement in either walking or cycling. Against this background, they opt for cars and other means of transportation which are considered to be faster, less time consuming and more convenient as opposed to cycling and walking. Some of these impediments can be surmounted when some of the strategies highlighted in the subsequent section are put into utility. Surmounting the barriers to walking and cycling There are several approaches that individuals and the policy makers as a whole can use in overcoming the challenges confronting these health strategies in different countries. Firstly, the individuals who are currently not walking or cycling need to understand that the motivation to these activities needs to be founded on intrinsic merits like health. Therefore, there is an urgent necessity to elevate the awareness among members of the general population about the health risks which are associated with lack of physical activities. This can be achieved through advertising campaigns but this can have limited impacts on the people who have chosen sedentary lifestyle (Mackett, 2011). This is in line with the health promotion principle of advocacy. On the other hand, the improvement of the working environment by heightening the financial investment level in better and wider pavements and human capital in clearing litter in these facilities is a primary motivator to increased degree of walking among different people. Similar enhancements are applicable to cycling and these improvements when coupled with effective policing can aid in the reduction of crime levels, but whether these interventions will prompt more people into walking and cycling is subject to debate (Mackett, 2011). Lastly, the approach of reducing the distance that people need to travel can be key in increasing the number of people who opt to walk or cycle to their work places, schools and other locations. This can be achieved through increasing the residential densities in places near these localities which will mean that most people will opt to cycling or walking the short distances to their destinations. These strategies among others are applicable across diverse regions and the policy makers ought to identify the most suitable strategy to implement in their localities in order to elevate the levels of cycling and walking which have direct impact on the health levels in these areas. This is in accordance with the Ottawa Charter action area of building healthy public policy. Conclusion From the above discourse, it is apparent that cycling and walking are health strategies that ought to be continued in the areas where they are widely embraced based on the diverse positive impacts that they pose on human population. This includes but not limited to reducing prevalence of some diseases like obesity and heart diseases, reduction of environmental pollution as well as the minimal risks associated with these exercises. Nonetheless, there are some basic obstacles to these activities in some regions which ought to be put into consideration by policy makers as well as individual efforts. These include limited motivation, lifestyle and shortage of time as well as difficulties in walking and cycling among some segments of the population. This can be achieved through diverse approaches like enhancement of the infrastructure to facilitate these activities, reduction of the distances to key destinations like work places and schools as well as implementing policies aimed at reducing the number of vehicles in crowded areas which will increase the number of people opting for cycling and walking as a health strategy. References Atkinson, M & Weigand, L. (2008). A Review of Literature: The Mental Health Benefits of Walking and Bicycling. Portland: Portland State University. Bassett D, Pucher J, Buehler R, Thompson D, & Crouter S (2008). Walking, Cycling, and Obesity Rates in Europe, North America, and Australia. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 5(6), 795-814. Better Health Channel (2011).Walking for good health. Retrieved May 25, 2012 from http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcpdf.nsf/ByPDF/Walking_for_good_health/$File/Walking_for_good_health.pdf. Blumenthal, J., Babyak, M., et al. (1999). Efforts of exercise training on older patients with major depression. Archives of Internal Medicine, 1 (1), 159. Cavill, N. & Davis, A., (2007). Cycling and health: What's the evidence? Cycling England, UK Department of Transportation (Report). Dunn A, Marcus B, Kampert J, Garcia M, Kohl H & Blair S. (1999). Comparison of Lifestyle and Structured Interventions to Increase Physical Activity and Cardiorespiratory Fitness. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 281(4), 327–34. Grabow, M., Hahn, M., & Whited, M. (2010). Valuing  Bicycling’s Economic and Health Impacts in Wisconsin. Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin. Krag, T. (2005). Cycling, safety and health. Retrieved May 25, 2012 from http://zakka.dk/cykelhjelm/cykelhjelm_org_cycling_safety_ecf_Thomas_Krag.pdf Mackett, R., (2011). Improving health through walking and cycling. Retrieved May 25, 2012 from http://www.ciltuk.org.uk/download_files/march2011.pdf Pucher, J., et. al (2010). Walking and Cycling to Health: A Comparison of Recent Evidence From City, State, and International Studies. American Journal of Public Health, 1-7. Pucher J, Dijkstra L (2003). Promoting safe walking and cycling to improve public health: lessons from The Netherlands and Germany. American Journal of Public Health, 93(9), 1509–1516. Roberts, I., Owen, H., Lamb P., & MacDougall, C. (1996). Pedalling Health: Health Benefits of a Modal Transport Shift. Retrieved May 25, 2012 from http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/ped_bike/docs/cyhealth.pdf Toronto Public Health (April, 2012). Road to Health: Improving Walking and Cycling in Toronto. Retrieved May 25, 2012 from http://www.toronto.ca/health/hphe/pdf/roadtohealth.pdf Travel Smart Website (2010). Retrieved May 25, 2012 from http://www.travelsmart.qld.gov.au/ Vouri I., et. al., (1994). Physical Active Commuting to work-Testing its Potential for Exercise promotion. Medical Science in Sports and Exercise, 26 (7), 844. Read More