Influence of Food Structure in the Delivery of Nutrients - Literature review Example

Influence of Food Structure in the Delivery of Nutrients Name Tutor Course Date Table of Contents Table of Contents 2 Influence of Food Structure in the Delivery of Nutrients 2 Introduction 2 Discussion 4 Mechanism of digestion 4 Food structure 6 In-vitro digestion models 7 Oral processing and impacts of the food structure 8 Gastric processing and food structure influence 10 Manipulation and impact of the food structure 13 Encapsulation and its relevance 16 Conclusion 17 Bibliography 18 Influence of Food Structure in the Delivery of Nutrients Introduction Intake of nutritious food is a significant associate with the health of the individuals. The delivery of the nutrients in the digestive tract is an influential factor that determines the impact that the food has on the body building process. A standard chemical process is one of the main aspects that influence the digestion process. The amount of nutrients, in most cases, is however, dependant on various factors including the type of food. Research indicated that the structure of the food plays a vital role in influencing the delivery of nutrients (McClements, 2015). The food structure is usually changed by various factors even before the digestion process. The changes to the structure usually start during the heating and processing of the food. The food structure has impacts on various properties that have a direct relation with the nutritional value of the food. This includes the processability, safety, sensory qualities and ability to assist in weight management. The food structure is influenced by various factors including foam, gel, colloid, emulsion and solution. The interconnected network of the food is also a factor that influences the food structure. Interaction between the food components at the molecular level also influences the subsequent reassemblies during the digestion process and hence influencing the digestion process (Salvia-Trujillo, Qian, Martín-Belloso & McClements, 2013). The rate and extent of the food digestion as well as the nutrient uptake and bioavailability is dependant on the structure. The molecular interaction of the micronutrients with the macro-components such as proteins, polysaccharides, starch and fat is dependant on the structure. The release as well as bioavailability of the minerals and nutrients is influenced by the food structure. The ability to release and retain the small molecules is mainly dependant on the food structure. The selection of proteins as well as other nutrients during the digestion process is influenced by the colloidal stability of emulsions in humans which is controlled at the human gut (Bornhorst & Paul Singh, 2014). The process is also dependant on the structure of the food. The body requires nutrients from different types of food. Some of the foods have complex structures that need to be broken down during the digestion process. The food structures have to be broken down to various extents during the digestion process in order to release the required nutrients. The disintegration of the structure in most cases leads to the release of oil and droplets and nutrients. Modeling in most cases is used for the purposes of estimating the biochemical degradation (Holscher, Caporaso, Hooda, Brulc, Fahey & Swanson, 2015). The transport as well as absorption of the nutrients is an important factor that is influenced by the structure. The design of the food products is dependent on the knowledge and information of the food structure and hence the importance of the topic. New products as well as functionality can be determined through the understanding of the food structure. Various models have been developed over the years in order to ensure that detailed information about the food structure is obtained. The paper thus discuses the influence of food structure on the delivery of nutrients in the digestive tract. Discussion Mechanism of digestion Digestion involves the breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into water soluble food molecules in order to facilitate absorption to the watery blood plasma.The digestion process is divided into different steps which involves mechanical and chemical processes. In humans, the food enters the mouth and the digestion starts through a process of chewing which is part of mechanical digestion (McClements, 2015). During the chewing process, the food is broken down into small particles and is also mixed with saliva. Saliva is a liquid that is secreted from the salivary glands. It contains an enzyme which is known as salivary amylase which is responsible for initiating the digestion of starch in the food being consumed. The saliva also contains mucus that is responsible for wetting and lubricating the food so as to enhance the process of swallowing. In order for the enzyme amylase to work, it requires an ideal condition. The ideal condition is provided by hydrogen carbonate which is also present in the saliva. The process that takes place in the mouth which is chewing is also commonly referred to as mastication. After the mastication and digestion of starch, the food is usually reduced into small round slurry mass which is referred to as bolus (McClements, 2013). Through an action of peristalsis, the bolus travels to the stomach through the esophagus. In the stomach, the digestion process continues with secretion of more chemicals. The stomach contains gastric juice which is responsible for the digestion of proteins. The gastric juice is comprised of pepsin and hydrochloric acid. Mucus is also secreted by the stomach in order to prevent the damage from hydrochloric acid and pepsin. It therefore acts as a shield that prevents the damaging effects of chemicals during the digestion process. Peristalsis is also responsible for mechanical mixing in the stomach as the digestion of proteins takes place. This is usually achieved through the contraction of the stomach muscles. A thick liquid called chime is formed after 1-2 hours after the food enters the stomach (Mahan & Raymond 2016). Chyme enters the duodenum after the opening of the pyloric sphincter valve opens. This is accompanied by further addition of chemicals and enzymes. Bile that is secreted from the liver as well as digestive enzymes from the pancreas is secreted and it mixes with chime. The digestion continues and the chime mixed with bile and enzyme enters the small intestines. After the full digestion of the chime, it is absorbed into the blood. About 95% of the nutrients usually take place in the small intestines (Engel & Moran, 2013). The large intestines are responsible for the re-absorption of minerals and water. This is attributed to the conditions and structures in the small and large intestines. Some vitamins are also produced by bacteria and are absorbed in the colon. The vitamins are then absorbed in the blood. It is through the consumption of food and digestion that the required nutrients are absorbed and hence leading to body building and growth. The waste products after digestion are eliminated from the rectum through a process known as defecation. Food structure The food structure mainly seeks to identify the physical structure of food and the changes during digestion process. This plays an important role in terms of determining the way nutrients and bioactive are delivered by the body. The food structure is complex as it is made up of highly variable mixture of different substances. This includes the polysaccharides, proteins, fats and sugars. The interaction of the components at the molecular stage is an important aspect that determines the delivery of nutrients to the body during the digestion process (Gidley, 2013). The food structure is determined at the molecular level which leads to the formation of colloids, emulsion and polymer networks. The delivery of nutrients in the body is dependent on the rate of digestion. The rate of digestion on the other hand is dependent on the food structure and hence its importance in the study of the delivery of food during the digestion process. During the digestion process, there is an interface between physics, chemistry and biology. The food behavior and delivery of the nutrients to the body is largely dependent on the food structure. Improved nutritional qualities of food can be attained through a proper understanding of the food structure and its role in the delivery of nutrients (Borel & Sabliov, 2014). The delays in the digestion of the food can also be attributed to the food structure. The food structure is currently being used to develop food that improves on the nutrition of the individuals. A better understanding of the physical structure of the food has been obtained though the different models. In-vitro digestion models A number of models have been developed in order to establish an understanding of the human digestion. The in vitro models are mainly used for studying the structural changes, digestibility and the release of food components under the simulated gastrointestinal conditions. The simulations are useful in terms of determining the influence that the food structure has on the delivery of nutrients to the digestive tract. The in vitro digestion models mainly studies the aspects that involve screening the food ingredients which is also vital in the process of determining the influence of food structure in the delivery of nutrients in the digestive tract (Marze, 2013). The cell culture model has been used in vitro digestion to study the process in humans. This model has been widely used as a predictive tool in terms of predicting the absorption of bioactive components from food as well as pharmaceutical products. This model offers a low cost as well as rapid method of screening food as well as food combinations. The enzyme activity as well as hydrolysis can be measures through the use of the vitro models. The models indicate that various factors influences the enzymes and this includes the incubation time, temperature, PH, concentration and activators. The models also indicate that the digestibility of single nutrients can be determined through the use of a single enzyme method. A single purified enzyme is commonly used during the model in order to facilitate the standardization of the in vitro digestion (Flint, Scott, Louis & Duncan, 2012). The models indicate that during the digestion of one nutrient is influence by the other nutrients. The vitro digestion models have played an important role in terms of providing information about the absorption of nutrients during the digestion process. The rapid screening of food emulsion is usually achieved through the use of the PH stat method. The model indicates that there are different digestibilities when it comes to different foods due to the production of the enzymes as well as the structure of the food. The digestion time is an important aspect that is related with the type of food as well as the structure. The models indicate that the time taken to digest the food and ensure the absorption of nutrients is dependent on the age, health status and the properties of the food (Liou, Paziuk, Luevano, Machineni, Turnbaugh & Kaplan, 2013). The structure is one of the most important properties of the food that influences the absorption of nutrients in the digestive tract. The transit time of the food is an important aspect that determines the absorption of nutrients. A short transit time may impact negatively on the ability to ability to absorb the nutrients and hence impacting negatively of bioavailability. It is also important to note that the in vitro digestion model does not consider the large intestines. This is because most of the nutrients are usually absorbed in the small intestines. The models indicate that most of the processes usually take place in 2 hours. The results of the simulation therefore indicate that the process is effective in the provision of detailed information about the digestion process (Scholten, Moschakis & Biliaderis, 2014). Oral processing and impacts of the food structure In the human gastro-intestinal tract, the oral cavity is where the food is exposed to physical as well as mechanical breakdown of the structure. This is mainly through the action of chewing and lubrication of the food particles. The mechanical properties of the food consumed is influences the degree of food fragmentation in the oral cavity (Benshitrit, Levi, Tal, Shimoni & Lesmes, 2012). When hard food is being consumed, more force may be required during the process in order to ensure that the particles are broken down. Food with the same mechanical properties may also have different degree of degree of fragmentation which emphasizes on the influence of the original food structure. An example of food with similar chewing cycles is peanuts and coconut. However, the bolus of peanut is half that of the coconut which is mainly attributed to the structure. The same is applicable for egg white which has one of the smallest chewing cycles but its bolus is not the smallest. Hardness is one of the most important physical properties of food that influences the digestion process. The formation of bolus is dependent on the chewing process which involves the fracturing and breakage of the food particles. The rate of particle size distribution during the digestion process at the oral cavity is influenced by the mechanical properties of the food as well as other factors such as the dental performance of the individuals (Ting, Jiang, Ho & Huang, 2014). This stage is vital in preparation for the absorption of nutrients in the digestive tract. During the mastication process, the fine stranded gels with smooth and slippery surfaces usually break down into large and non-homogeneous particles. This also indicates that the higher the gel hardness, the greater the degree of gel fragmentation in the mouth. The complex physical and biochemical event in the human oral regime is directly related to the change in the microstructures during the digestion process and hence determining the levels of nutrient absorption (Nehir El & Simsek, 2012). Flocculation can take place in the food emulsions depending on the interactions between the salivary proteins and emulsion droplets. The complex combination of the physical as well as the biochemical changes is a factor that influences the digestion process in food. This is a factor that is directly related to the structure of the food. It is also important to note that food have inherent hierarchical structures that range from nanascopic to macroscopic scale. The dominant underlying properties of food plays vital role in the process of determining and understanding the complex properties. Flavour release as well as texture perception is an important aspect that influences the oral processing process. This is also dependant of the food structure as well as the release of the enzymes. Amylase is one of the most important enzymes that are released during the oral digestion process and it is influenced by various factors including the structure of the food (Conlon & Bird, 2014). The food comprising of different starches in structure is usually broken down amylase which is an indication of the influence that the structure has on the digestion process. Gastric processing and food structure influence The delivery of nutrients to the digestive tract is also influenced by the gastric processing activities and food structure. The integration between the gastric juice and the food bolus influences the disintegration of the food structure in the stomach. Food particle swelling which is also common in the gastric processing is also influenced by the food structure. The mechanical as well as the chemical factors usually work together in the stomach for the purposes of grinding and disintegrating the food particles (Hussain & Bloom, 2013). The food particles have to be reduced between 1-2 mm before it reaches the pyloric opening. The disintegration rate of food materials in the stomach is mainly dependant on the food structures and material and this influences the absorption of nutrients. The plant material during the gastric phase is usually softened by the acid hydrolysis of pectin. The rate at which the process takes place is dependent on the food structure. The action of acid as well as pepsin is also dependant on the diffusion of the gastric juice in the bolus. The diffusion process on the other hand is dependent on the food structure as well as the mechanical properties of the food. The ionic strength of the gastric juice is much higher as compared to the typical food (Lemmens, Colle, Van Buggenhout, Palmero, Van Loey & Hendrickx, 2014). However, the rate of diffusion is different depending on the food structure and materials. The process may take place much faster in some types of food and hence influencing the rate of nutrient absorption. The nutrients may be absorbed at a fast rate is the process is fast although this may result to the absorption of a small amount of nutrients. In the stomach, the disintegration of food is dependent on the factors such as hardness as well as toughness. An increase in the hardness and toughness of the food decrease the rate of disintegration. Peanuts and ham is a good example. Ham has a very low hardness and it can loss 50% of its weight in about 5 minutes. However, peanuts have a high level of hardness and it takes about 715 minutes to lose its hardness (Lerner & Matthias, 2015). This is an indication that different types of food vary in terms of the disintegration rates during the gastric digestion which is primarily influenced by the food structure. The changes in the food structure during processing are a factor that is influential when dealing with the same type of food. If the same food is boiled, roasted or fried, its structures undergo different changes. In the example of the peanut, can loss 50% of its weight in a period of 10.7 hours when it is raw. However, the same peanut can lose 50% of the weight for a period of 8.3 hours when it is boiled. The fried peanuts loose 50% of its weight within a period of 3.6 hours (Rodríguez, et al, 2015). This is therefore an indication that the structure is an influential aspect during the gastric digestion. The loss of matrix structure is usually experienced when the food is boiled and hence influencing the disintegration process during the gastric digestion. This is an important aspect that influences the process of nutrient absorption by the body. The food with low fracture strength is usually broken down at a fast rate in the stomach during the digestion process. However, the food with high fracture strength is broken down at a slower rate during the digestion process in the stomach. According to Ghorani & Tucker, (2015), activities such as altering the adsorption rates also change the structure of the food and hence influencing the digestion in the stomach, for instance, bread whereby the original structure is changed through altering the water adsorption ability. This in turn leads to significant changes in the disintegration of the bread bolus during the digestion process. The absorption of nutrient is an important factor that influenced by the stomach emptying rate. The delivery of nutrients may be at a higher rate depending on the emptying of the stomach. The dense microstructure contributes to a slow rate of gel disintegration in the stomach and hence increasing the time required for emptying the stomach. Cohesiveness and elasticity is usually increased when the food is disintegrated within a long period of time (Mun, Kim, Shin & McClements, 2015). The delivery of nutrients may therefore take a long period of time depending on the complexity of the structure. Food such as cheese may take a long time to disintegrate and hence slowing the rate of nutrient delivery to the body. A higher rate of gastric emptying usually takes place in the presence of faster disintegration rate. The delivery of nutrients during the stomach digestion is influenced by the type of food and their structure. When dealing with the whey protein emulsion, heat plays an important role in influencing the structure of the food. This results to the formation of different ionic strength that directly influences the delivery of nutrients. The soft emulsion gels usually disintegrate at a faster rate as compared to the hard emulsion gels (Farré &Tack, 2013). This can also be attributed to the release of the oil droplets. The breakdown of the hard and soft gels during the digestion process is mainly attributed to the material properties as well as the structure. Psychochemical as well as structural changes usually take place during the digestion process and hence affecting the delivery of the proteins. The aggregate particle structure of the food influences the hydrolysis process. The gels that contain large oil particles may end up disintegrating at a fast rate which is an important aspect in the delivery of nutrients. The food with similar composition but different structures disintegrates at a different rate. This therefore leads to the delivery of nutrients at different rates. Different processes as well as the physicochemical interactions usually contribute to changes in the food structure (Kaya-Celiker & Mallikarjunan, 2012). This includes the changes in the particle sizes of the food. Disintegration and hydrolysis is an important aspect that influences the process of digestion and delivery of food. The gastric structuring of the emulsion usually takes place at different rates and hence influencing the structure and breakdown. The extent of release and stabilization of the emulsion is also influenced by the particle size as well as the structures and network. Manipulation and impact of the food structure The colloidal stability of emulsions in the human gut in most cases is controlled by the food structure and the careful selection of the nutrients such as the proteins, for instance the surface area of the emulsion oil droplets during the digestion process. Coalescence is an important aspect that is used in the control of fats under the acidic condition of the human stomach (Rein, et al, 2013). This in turn influences the digestion process as well as the delivery on nutrients. The surface area of the emulsion oil droplets is usually reduced by coalescence which slows down the rate of fat digestion in the body and hence facilitating the delivery of nutrients. The absorption of fat and the release of satiety-associated hormone are influenced by the food structure which determines the delivery of nutrients. The selection of the emulsifier type is influenced by the food structure which varies depending on the type of food. The digestion of food can be controlled in the presence of an emulsifier type. This influences the delivery of nutrients during the digestion process depending on the type of food and its structure. This information has played an important role in the process of developing new food products that can deliver a high amount of nutrients within a short period of time (Sagalowicz, et al, 2016). There are different types of biopolymer networks in common foods which that influences the digestion process. This is especially important in terms of the emulsified fat which has different physical chemical properties. During the digestion process, the kinetics of the proteins is influenced by the food structure. This usually leads to hydrolysis and subsequent absorption of the nutrients in the body. As compared to the native structures in solution, the proteins that are adsorbed at the emulsion interfaces and aggregated forms usually digest differently (Fernandez, Jannin, Chevrier, Chavant, Demarne & Carrière, 2013). This is an indication that the structure has an impact in the delivery of nutrients to the body. The release of amino acids and peptide release in the plasma is influenced by various factors related to structure including viscosity. An example of this is the retention of colloidal form of yoghurt in the stomach for a longer period of time as compared to the liquid milk. This therefore enhances the process of nutrient absorption and delivery in yoghurt as compared to the ordinary liquid milk. The stimulation of hormones that enhances on the delivery of nutrients in the body can be enhanced by altering the protein structure without changing the nutritional composition of the food. In food products such as fruits and vegetables, the bioavailability of carotenoids is influenced by the processing as well as the preparation process (Minekus, et al, 2014). This can be attributed to the changes that usually takes place in the structure of the food and vegetables during processing. The structure in other instances are encapsulates the nutrients within the cells during the processing process. The cell wall structure of the food is usually altered during the preparation and processing which influences the delivery of nutrients. The size of the cell wall particles is an aspect of structure that influences the digestion and delivery of nutrients to the body. The bioavailability of the nutrients as well as the structure of the particles is some of the factors that influences the texture and taste of the food (Yada, et al, 2014). The chewing and breakdown of the food particles is greatly influenced by food structure. In bread, the porous structure provides a soft chewy structure and hence improving on the digestion and delivery of nutrients. A crunchy and crispy structure is however common with flakes which in most cases is served for breakfast just like bread. The structure of the food has greatly influenced the processing method. Minced beef is digested more rapidly as compare to the intact beef steak. This can be attributed to the breakdown of the structure which enhances the digestion process. The retention of the nutrients is also higher when the mine meat is consumed as compared to the intact steak (Fathi, Mozafari & Mohebbi, 2012). The information was mainly attributed to the food models which are used to stimulate the food digestion process. Other practices that have also been put in place as a result of the information from the simulations include the heat treatment of milk. Pasteurizing of milk is one of the practices that are carried out in order to enhance the digestion process and enhance on the delivery of nutrients. The same principle has also been used in the development of tomato paste which is easily digested as compared to the raw tomatoes. Encapsulation and its relevance Encapsulation is an aspect that is involved in the control of different nutrients and their digestibility in the human gastrointestinal tract. The digestion of lipid and the delivery of its nutrients is mainly dependant on the encapsulation. The process is useful in terms of slowing down the digestion of fats and lipids which is useful in ensuring a high amount of nutrients is delivered and retained in the body. Encapsulating oil with alginates has been found to be effective in the lowering the digestion of lipids in the small intestines and hence contributing controlled release of fats (Fardet, 2015). This is effective in ensuring that the individuals are able to control their weight when consuming certain types of food. The structure of the lipids is usually altered during the encapsulation process and hence influencing the delivery of nutrients. Encapsulation is also considered as one of the most effective strategy in the control of GI of lipids. The lipids in most cases provide the consumers with mouth feel and texture which is appealing. It is for the reason that the food containing a high amount of lipid always has a good and appealing taste (Cho, Salvia-Trujillo, Kim, Park, Xiao & McClements, 2014). This can also be attributed to the influences of the food structure. Encapsulation of the lipids alters their delivery to the main site of digestion and absorption in the small intestines. This also leads to prolonged satiety and delayed nutrient absorption. Encapsulation therefore acts as a control release system for fat digestion as opposed to being a fat blocker. Encapsulation utilizes scientific concepts to control the digestion process and intake of nutrients in humans. Food grade sodium alginate is used in most cases during the process (McClements, 2015). During the digestion process, not all the alginate is usually broken down immediately by the intestinal secretions. Some usually remain intact for a long period of time and hence controlling the digestion process. This method has been highlighted as an important aspect in slowing down the digestion process and delivery of nutrients. The number of people with obesity has been on the in the recent past. About 20% of the world population is obese (McClements, 2015). This is mainly attributed to the food consumption and high intake of food with fat and lip contents. However, encapsulation is seen as one of the main solution for dealing with the challenge. The individuals can be able to control their weight through the encapsulation when they consume food containing high fat and lipid contents. Measures are being put in place by most of the food processing companies to ensure that the fat is digested at a slower rate. The information about food structure has therefore contributed positively to improved nutrition. Conclusion In conclusion, it is evident that the food structure plays a vital role in influencing the delivery of nutrients. The digestion of food takes place in different stages staring with the mouth where chewing takes place. It is evident that the food structure influences the chewing process which determines the level of breakdown of the food particles. The structure of the food is an important aspect that determines the food appeal and hence its consumption. Various chemicals as well as enzymes usually interact with the food during the digestion process. The enzymes as well as the chemical are mainly involved in the further breakdown of food to facilitate the delivery of nutrients. It is evident that the rate of food breakdown by the chemicals and enzymes is dependent on the structure. It is for this reason that some types of food are easy to break down while others are difficult. It is evident that processing of food is a significant aspect that influences its digestion and ability to deliver nutrients. The delivery of nutrients by the same food is different when their structure is altered during the processing. The information about the food digestion behaviour and effects of the structure can be obtained through simulations. The in-vitro model is useful in providing information about the digestion ad effects of food structure. The manipulation of the food during the digestion process ensures that the nutrients are able to reach different parts of the body. The information about food structure has played an important role in improving on nutrition. It is evident that encapsulation is an important concept that is used to control the digestion of fats and lipid. The process ensures that the delivery of nutrients is controlled. Encapsulation has played a vital role in dealing with obesity. Bibliography McClements, D.J., 2015. 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