Teaching the Human Brain - Coursework Example

HUMAN BRAIN Introduction Brain is regarded to be the most complex part of human body. Every thought, action, experience, feelings and emotions are produced in this important part. The brain is like a jelly like mass of tissues that weighs around 1.4 kilogram. It is the site of intelligence, sense interpreter, body movement initiator and controls the behavior of human being. All the qualities that are defined in the humanity are due to the brain which is protected by a bony shell and a protective fluid. It is the crown jewel in the body of human being (Know your Brain, 2012). It contains about hundreds and billions of nerve cells called neuron. The connections between the cells are quite complex and mind blogging. A tiny structure called synapses assists the neurons to establish connection between thousands and millions of other neurons. In every second brain establishes millions and millions of connections. The brain continuously reinforces the pattern of brain activity that causes the memories to store, to shape the behavior and personality of a person (Philips, 2006). Human can establish an association between pleasure and stimuli, when it evolves conscious awareness. This awareness is the basis for the sense of aesthetics that provides the people with the insight to develop the sense of create and value art (Visual cognition, 2005, p. 541). Brain has been the main character of interest that has fascinated many researchers and philosophers until in recent times they viewed that human brain is inexplicable. Due to the development of new research techniques and advancement in the research of neurological and behavioral sciences in the last few centuries, scientists have opened new doors to learn and understand more about human brain (Know your Brain, 2012). Human beings are social animal with superlative quality but the base of social cognition and behavior of human being needs further study. The social behavior of human being is guided through several structures like “: the amygdala, ventromedial frontal cortices, and right somatosensory-related cortex,among others” (Adolphs, 1999, p. 469) that are pointed by the studies on human. These structures act as interface between the perceptual depictions of socially significant stimuli such as “the sight of conspecifics, and retrieval of knowledge (or elicitation of behaviors) that such stimuli can trigger” (Adolphs, 1999, p. 469). The debate concerns what social cognition can be drawn from the social information and the contribution of the innate and knowledge towards social cognition. The present study focuses on the understanding of the basic structure of the brain, important parts of the brain and their functions. The study also focuses on the understanding of cognitive science and basic principles of learning. 1. Analyzing various parts of the Brain For the last few years researchers believed that the first few years of life is vital for the growth and development of the brain. It was believed traditionally that when one reaches the adult stage the brain stops producing new cells and stops growing. But the recent advancement in the research has shown that brains develops constantly and keeps on making or forming new cells. The most significant and vital growth of the brain takes place in the prenatal and early years of development. “Approximately 95% of a child’s brain has structurally developed to adult size by age 6” (Introduction to Brain Structure and Basic Functions—Part I, 2008, pp. 71-72). Most of the neurons get developed when the child is in mother’s womb. Moreover it’s worth mentioning that an adult have much less number of neurons than a child before his birth because the unused neurons in the development are extracted. Though it is true that there is very little development in the structural volume of the brain after the age of 5 but the important stages of the development in both structure and function occurs throughout the life, especially through the age of 25. Furthermore in a normal individual the formation of the neural path is throughout the life span (Introduction to Brain Structure and Basic Functions—Part I, 2008, pp. 71-72). 1.1 Brain Hemispheres The brain has two hemispheres: the right and the left hemispheres. “The right hemisphere controls the left side of your body, while the left hemisphere controls the right side” (A Brain Primer—Major Structures and Their Functions. n.d., pp. 3-4). The two hemispheres look similar in structure though there is difference in their functions. The two hemispheres of the brain provide various kinds of thinking that provides that provides with the benefits of various ways of intelligence and perceiving. The right hemisphere “excels at nonverbal, spatial tasks; it helps with things like awareness, sociability, intuition, holistic thinking, estimation, intonation of speech, and visual memories, among other things” (A Brain Primer—Major Structures and Their Functions. n.d., pp. 3-4). Whereas the left hemisphere “excels in language and verbal and logical tasks, including things like writing and speaking, calculating, analyzing, tending to grammar and literal meaning of speech, and thinking linearly” (A Brain Primer—Major Structures and Their Functions. n.d., pp. 3-4). Though the two hemispheres appear to be separated because of the fissure passing through the middle of the brain but still they are connected by “a band of fibers called the corpus callosum”. “The corpus callosum is made up of a band of axons, the part of a neuron” (A Brain Primer—Major Structures and Their Functions. n.d., pp. 3-4). The neuron is responsible for sending information to other cells in the brain. The corpus callosum works as a bridge that fosters communication between the left and the right hemispheres. The two hemispheres are specialized to perform their different ways of thinking. This is a very significant point to be remembered by the teachers the unique brain is specialized in unique ways of thinking too. “There are students who need a holistic grasp of the big picture (right hemisphere) before hanging onto the parts, just as there are students whose need for linear, sequential (left hemisphere) instruction trumps other methods” (A Brain Primer—Major Structures and Their Functions. n.d., pp. 3-4) (See Figure 1). Figure 1: The two Hemispheres of Brain Source: The Brain Premier, p.3 1.2 The Forebrain The forebrain is the uppermost part of the brain that the most advanced and largest section of the brain. It is involved almost in all the function of the brain except the autonomic action of the brain stem. It is responsible for the “emotions, memory, and higher order activities such as thinking and reasoning”. The cerebrum and the limbic system make up the forebrain. The cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres the left and the right hemispheres, which consists of four divisions called lobes (Brain Page, n.d., p.1) (See Figure 2). Figure 2: The part of Brain Source: Know Your Brain (NINDS) 1.2.1 Frontal Lobes The frontal lobes are located under the forehead. “A prefrontal lobe that is a part of the frontal lobe is right behind the forehead” (Lobes of The Brain and Their Function, n.d., p.1). The frontal lobes attain maturity when the individual is at an age of 25. Therefore it can be concluded that an individual attains the cognitive maturity at an age of 25 (Lobes of The Brain and Their Function, n.d., p.1). The advanced form of human behavior is mediated by the frontal lobes. They include “the main preparatory and effectors mechanisms for intentional motor behavior, including limb movement, eye movements and speech movements” (Levine & Craik, 2011, p. 3). The frontal lobes are also critical to several mnemonic operations including “the online maintenance and manipulation of information, allowing human to transcend the default mode of instinctual stimulus response relationships and the organization of information for encoding and retrieval of long term memory” (Levine & Craik, 2011, p. 3). They are involved in the purpose of “abstract relationship and mental flexibility, which enables selection maintenance and consistency of operations” (Levine & Craik, 2011, p. 3). The ventral and medial frontal lobes are connected with the limbic system and are hence responsible for the emotional processing. The recent research shows that the frontal lobes are involved in “social cognition and future oriented thoughts” (Levine & Craik, 2011, p. 3). The important role of frontal lobes includes “many human formation processing operation” (Levine & Craik, 2011, p. 3). The frontal lobes are also involved in many “major neurological and psychiatric disorder the most prevalent being brain injury, dementia, schizophrenia and depression” (Levine & Craik, 2011, p. 3). 1.2.2. Temporal Lobes “The two temporal lobes located on the both side of the brain, left and right side at the level of the ear. The primary auditory cortex inside the temporal lobes is responsible for all auditory processing” (Upledger, 1996, p.155-156). The temporal lobe cortices are responsible for the auditory sense that is the sense of hearing that is received and conducted through ears and interpreted. There is mechanism within the ear that changes sound into electrical impulse. The temporal lobes are responsible for “interpretation of sight, visual image as well as visceral function and emotion”. On both sides of the brain there are planum temporale, which is located on the cortices of the temporal lobes. It also expends over a major part of the pariental lobes. The choice of word to express one’s idea is related to this planum temporale. Women have larger planum temporale on the right side of their brain whereas men have planum temporale on the left side of their brain. This is the main reason for women speaking more on intuitive level while men are more précised in using their language. When an individual pays more attention to the shape the temporal cortices are more active. The right side shows more pronounced activation. The visual memory of an individual is produced due to the involvement of inferior temporal cortices. This area captures a series of new experience and creates a sort of film for future references. The temporal lobes overlays “the hippocampus and the amygdale”. “These parts of the temporal lobes are used by these structures in the transfer of information from short term memory to long term memory”. (Upledger, 1996, p.155-156). 1.2.3 Parietal Lobes Parietal lobes are responsible for essential cortical processing areas for “a great variety of distinctive behavioral functions and lesions in this area may produce a number of specific sensory and cognitive deficits” (Gaddes & Edgell, 1993, p. 130). The cortices of parietal lobes are bounded “anterior boundary, fissure of Rolando, or central sulcus; superior boundary, longitudinal fissure; inferior boundary, fissure of Sylvius; and posterior boundary, the occipital lobe” (Gaddes & Edgell, 1993, p. 130). At the posterior end of the fissure of Rolando is the postcentral gyrus that is referred to as somesthetic strip. It is the primary area that receives all the tactile sensations coming from all the parts of the body. Because the tactile sense “is first sensory modality to develop prenatally (about the 49th prenatal day) compared with the vistabular (90 – 120 days), visual (180 days and earlier), and the auditory (210 days or earlier)” (Gaddes & Edgell, 1993, p. 130) its longer history appears to provide with special value in sensorimotor remedial procedure. The motor strip or precentral gyrus is located on the anterior or frontal boundary of the fissure of Rolando and is contra laterally. It is inversely vertically related to the motor functions of the body from head to feet so the somesthetic strip in the anterior parietal lobe is similarly contra laterally and vertically connected to the tactile receptors throughout the body (Gaddes & Edgell, 1993, p. 130). 1.2.4. The Occipital Lobes The occipital lobes are present on the back side of the brain. It is the primary visual area of the brain. The growth of tumor that is an uncontrollable cell growth that hampers the activity of the brain often causes blind spot in the vision. The images that are mapped on the cortex are stretched and distorted. The visual information only creates a complex pattern of the activity on the nerve cell (Coon, 2009, p. 72). 1.3. The Mid Brain The mid brain is the smallest region in the brain and is located at the topmost section of the brain. The Mid brain is linked to the features that are relayed to human emotions and long term memories through the neural connections to the lobes present in the neocortex. Neocortex is a complex structure that is associated with the functions that enables human thoughts. The structures in the hindbrain also contain the link that connects the thalamus with the lower brain stem. From the senses the information are derived and are send to brain, which then goes back to the muscles and the limbic system. The limbic system is found under the cortex and above the brain stem. It contains a number of interrelated structures. Limbic system is linked to “hormones, drives, temperature control, emotion and memory formation, thus explaining the strong link between emotion and long-term memory” (BRAIN STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION, n.d., p. 16). 1.4. The Hindbrain The upper section of the spinal cord holds the hindbrain. The spinal cord joins the brain and widens into the brainstem. The brain stem consists of medulla and cerebellum. Medulla is the swelling of tissue above the cervical spinal cord that marks the caudal portion of the brain. Like the spinal cord the medulla contains a large amount of white matter (Freberg, 2009, p. 35) . The medulla is responsible for the reflex of important life functions like “heart rate, breathing, swallowing etc” (Coon & Mitterer, 2010, pp. 73-74). Any injury or drug or any kind of disease that affects the medulla can endanger life and can even cause death. The small bump in the brain stem that acts as a bridge between the medulla and the brain area is termed as pons. The pon also connects various other locations with the cerebellum. The pon is also responsible for influencing the sleep and arousal among human beings. The cerebellum looks like a tiny cerebral cortex that lies at the base of the brain. The cerebellum is responsible to regulate “posture, muscular tone and coordination”. The cerebellum also stores the memory related to skill and habits. Tasks like walking, running and playing becomes impossible in case of injury to this portion (Coon & Mitterer, 2010, pp. 73-74). 2. Idea of Cognitive Science Cognitive science is “the interdisciplinary study of mind and brain, combining the concepts, methods and insights of large parts of psychology, neuroscience, evolutionary biology, linguistics, philosophy, anthropology and other social sciences, and formal methods from computer science, mathematics and physics” (Andler, 2005, p.3). In a nutshell Cognitive science can be defined as study of minds and brain that can be “real, artificial, human or animal”. Cognitive science has restricted itself to the domain where it may attain real understanding. The language impairment caused by the injury in war or from stroke, has lead some neurologists to go for an analysis. The French physiologist Marey (1830-1904) and the expatriate Englishman Eadweard Muybridge analyzed the motion of people and horse and linked the uniqueness of this motion with the perception and planning. The development of neuron staining method led to the establishment of neuron doctrine (Nadel & Palmarini, n.d., p.1). Human cognition is different from artificial cognition. This is because of the fact that human being is more concerned about the problems of live, survival and development. There is a regulatory system that interacts with the cognitive component. “It is the cognitive component that is subservient, evolved primarily for the benefit of the regulatory system, working through the emotions, through affect” (Norman, 1980, p. 1). By realizing the intentions, human being can only guide their actions. Based on the learning of the brain to control the action on the external objects and by foreseeing the consequences due to this control, the “flexible rapid and precise realization of the goals and intentions” (Imamizu & Kawato, 2009, p. 527) occurs. Nueral mechanisms that imitate the input output mechanism of the body are used to support control and prediction, which is referred to as internal model (Imamizu & Kawato, 2009, p. 527). “The evolved function of brain, cognitive, affective, conscious-psychological, and behavioral systems is to enable animals to attempt to gain control of the social (e.g., mates), biological (e.g., prey), and physical (e.g., nesting spots) resources that have tended to covary with survival and reproductive outcomes during the species’ evolutionary history” ( Geary, 2005, p. 21). 2.1 Cognitive science and intelligence Cognitive science means the study of interdisciplinary aspects of intelligence and mind. The synthetic methodology that is the methodology of “understanding by building” attracts interest to the most. 2.1.1. Characteristics of Intelligence Intelligence is not a characteristic that is present n the individuals but it is represented in degree. Thus it can be expressed in certain characteristics that assesses intelligence Thinking and Problem solving The ability to think and analyze is often regarded to be as one of the essential characteristics of intelligence. But it does not means that only problem solving or logical reasoning is only included but it also includes the mental activity that one uses in his day to day life. Problem solving is related to thinking which in turn is related to conscious thought. Termen viewed intelligence as abstract thinking. The philosopher Rene Descartes also had the same thing in his mind while writing the famous statement “Cognito ergo sum” (Pfeifer & Scheier, 2001, pp. 8-9). Learning and Memory One who learns quickly is defined to have good memory. The people who learn and then forget are not considered to be intelligent. Instead the concept of intelligence comes from the capacity of learning. Memory is also considered important in case of intelligence. But rote learning or learning by only memorizing is considered to be insignificant and does not require any intelligence (Pfeifer & Scheier, 2001, p.9). Language Language is also considered to be an important parameter to judge intelligence. The capacity to communicate by reading, writing or speaking is one of the distinguishing features among human being. Intelligence is the combination of “good learning, memory capacity and talent for languages” (Pfeifer & Scheier, 2001, p.9). Intuition and Creativity Intuition means “to arrive at a certain conclusion without a train of logical thought that can be traced to its origins” (Pfeifer & Scheier, 2001, p.10). Creativity is highly complex that includes “not only the individual but the society as whole” (Pfeifer & Scheier, 2001, p.10). Creativity is regarded to be the highest form of human intelligence. Thinking is independent of emotion whereas intuition and creativity involves emotions. Consciousness Consciousness is the most important element of intelligence. Though it is an essential ability for many others but it is difficult to grasp. Thinking, creativity and language all requires consciousness. Creativity is the result of a combination of consciousness and unconsciousness. It is an elusive concept and is really difficult to understand. Academic psychology argued that “the role of consciousness in the mental life that require consciousness have turned out to be a relatively minor fraction of the business of brain” (Pfeifer & Scheier, 2001, p.10). Emotion Human beings do have emotions. But whether emotions can be considered as element of intelligence or not that is debatable. Peter Salovey and John Mayer has coined the name of emotional intelligence that refers to “the ability to recognize emotions in others, using emotions to support thinking and actions, understanding emotions and regulating emotions” (Pfeifer & Scheier, 2001, p.11). The main idea behind this is recognizing and perceiving others emotions and then showing proper reaction in the social situation. The degree of sophistication related with emotions depends upon the degree of intelligence (Pfeifer & Scheier, 2001, p.11). Surviving Various creatures on the earth try to adopt themselves with the natural habitants by using different survival strategies. Like the ways the termites built towers, the bees dances and communicates and locates food, vultures attacks the ostrich eggs, the ways in which the woodpecker eats insects from the bark of the trees. These survival strategies show their intelligence. Some of them even engage themselves in most sophisticated survival behavior (Pfeifer & Scheier, 2001, p.11). Perceptual and Motor abilities It is a debatable issue whether perception is one of the characteristics of intelligence. It is an issue that is under research. “Recognizing complex objects in our environment, making out face in the crowd” (Pfeifer & Scheier, 2001, p.12) are amazing abilities that the scientists are trying to explain. A doctor who merely sees a patient and diagnoses what is wrong in him is something that is referred to as perceptual competency. This perceptual competency shows that in involves intelligence. However it is not clear whether the motor skill can be considered under the intelligence or not (Pfeifer & Scheier, 2001, p.12). 2.2 Cognitive Science and Artificial Intelligence So far the discussion was regarding the cognitive science and intelligence. But at many places there are potential problems with this paradigm. The cognitive science is not only concerned with the investigation of the general principles of intelligence related to the human mind but also covers a vast portion of the artificial intelligence. “The difference between the two fields is that cognitive science has closer ties to empirical sciences like psychology, biology and neurobiology, whereas artificial intelligence is more closely associated with computer science, algorithm and logic” (Pfeifer & Scheier, 2001, p.12). The term classical artificial intelligence is used to distinguish the traditional approach from the recent one, which is described as embodied cognitive science (Pfeifer & Scheier, 2001, p.12). The intelligent agents like human, animal and robots who lives in this world leads to various shortcomings in explaining intelligence. This fact has been neglected by the cognitive paradigm. The classical models developed within the cognitive paradigm focuses on “high level process like problem solving, reasoning, making inferences and playing chess” (Pfeifer & Scheier, 2001, pp. 59-60). Like for instance computer plays better chess than human being and often defeats world champions. But in some other cases computer are less efficient like in case of vision. This is because Artificial Intelligence does not consider real world sufficiently. This has indulged many researchers to reconsider their approaches for studying intelligence (Pfeifer & Scheier, 2001, pp. 59-60). The use of explanation is “central to theories in many areas of Artificial Intelligence (AI), such as text understanding, plan repair and indexing and guiding generalization”. In some of the recent research explanation based processes are supported as psychological models (Leake, 1995, pp. 251). 2.3 Conscious and Unconscious Cognition The revolution in cognitive science has brought consciousness into a respectable position by striding attention, primary memory and imagery. Flanagan has highlighted on the main four reasons: Positivitic Reserve: The methodological assumptions adopted by the Cognitive psychology, which emphasizes that behavior is considered to be the window of mind. Consciousness is private and is beyond “the pale of a science of the mind”. Piecemeal Approach: Cognitive psychologist shows an interest towards consciousness. Many of the cognitive psychologists have studied the various aspects of consciousness like “attention, episodic memory and imaginary, without ever referring to consciousness itself’ (Sternberg, 1999, p.173). This has marginalized consciousness as a topic to be address privately. Consciousness Inessentialism: It was made even worse when cognitive process was assumed to “produce perfectly adequate description of human information processing solely in terms of the functional relations between stimulus inputs and response outputs” (Sternberg, 1999, p.173). The study of behaviorism got a major throwback and thus making the study of mind inessential. Epiphenomalist Suspicion: The computational functionalist finally admits that consciousness is a part of human experience and end product of cognitive functioning and does not play a major role in ”human thought, action and experience” (Sternberg, 1999, p.173). The cognitive science has thrived on deep exploration. Human thoughts have become a centre of interest in the study of scientific psychology. Many articles and journals have elaborated the ideas and have collectively coined the name of “cognitive revolution”. 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