Discovery of Epstein-Barr Virus - Research Paper Example

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) Discovery of Epstein-Barr Epstein and Yvonne Barr were responsible for the discovery of this virus, which explains the name that is an adoption of the family names of these two scientists (Epstein, Achong, and Barr 702). Prior to the discovery, the professor had attended a number of seminars and discussions that highlighted different strains of viruses from various parts of the world. Consequently, a specimen that required culturing arrived in Middlesex Hospital in 1963 from Uganda, which set the path to the discovery of the disease. Epstein, Barr, and Achong discovered the presence of a virus in the cultured specimen and the three published their discovery the same year with the development of antibodies and mononucleosis taking place later. Consequently, the three scientists were able to observe the development of antibodies to the virus (Robertson 18). Relation to any Other Viruses Perhaps the most common relationship of EBV with any other virus is in relationship to the TTV. In this case, the relationship regards the association between these two viruses and their infection of B-cell lymphoma and the Hodgskin lymphoma (Figueiredo et al. 736). In line with this, an increase in the tolerance of contagion within the first 48 hours of infection with the virus called herpes simplex indicates a demonstration of the conversion of EBV. In effect, this phenomenon implies that it is feasible to have TTV and EBV viruses in the same B cell (Figueiredo 736). Incidence of Epstein-Barr Medical practitioners point out that Epstein-Barr is one of the most common infections that affected human beings. In line with this, experts suggested that the infection affected approximately 95% of the adult population by the time that they reached 40 years of age. In effect, this implies that the disease can affect any individual despite their geographical location and almost the entire world’s population has once suffered the disease. Nonetheless, most incidents of Epstein-Barr do not indicate the presence of symptoms in a person. In addition, an incidence of the infection puts an individual at a risk of mononucleosis with approximately 35-40% of those infected likely to develop this condition (Schueler, Beckett, and Gettings). Progression of Epstein-Barr virus A series of a standardized process characterizes the progression of EBV. First, EBV attacks the B-cells at the point of CR-2 (CD 21) while using the glycoprotein (GP 350/220). However, it could also attack the epithelial cells that do not possess the CD 21. This affects the epithelial cells that infect the Blymphocyte resulting to the latency stage. The cells infected exhibit latent membrane (LMP) 1 and 2a as they give the survival signals (Odumade, Hogquist, and Balfour 199). In this regard, this procedure minimizes the decline in EBV affected population of B cells, and in so doing ensuring that the memory B cells increases. Thus, the memory B cells ensure the survival of EBV. The second stage is the lytic cycle or the stage known as the stage of productive infection since it is responsible for the production of infectious virions. At the sage, lytic replication of the EBV virus can be in either the epithelial cells or B-cells of an organ. In the B-cells, the replication takes place from the latency stage while replication in the epithelia cell is a step that follows the entry of the virus into the cells (Odumade, Hogquist, and Balfour 199). In line with this, it is crucial to point out that the process of lytic replication requires the linear formation of the viral genome in order for the process to take place. In this case, the lining of the genome is important since the EBV genome is circular in shape and the process of lytic reactivation requires the genome to become linear. Hence, viral DNA polymerase is crucial for copying the viral genome during the process of lytic replication (Odumade, Hogquist, and Balfour 200). The lytic stage of progression involves the production of products of lytic genes in three consecutive stages classified into immediate-early stage, early stage, and the late stages (Odumade, Hogquist, and Balfour 200). Each of these stages produces different products of the gene. Nonetheless, the lytic stage is necessary for the EBV to affect other cells. In this stage, the EBV reactivates leading to the inhibition of the immune system. The next stage of progression of the virus is the latency stage, which does not result to production of virions, unlike the lytic replication stage. Nonetheless, this process involves the circularization of the EBV genome, which lives in the cell nucleus as an episome. Effectively, the cellular DNA polymerase copies the genome during this stage with only a segment of EBV’s genes undergoing expression (Odumade, Hogquist, and Balfour 201). Overall, the stages of the disease’s progression start with the primary infection stage, latency stage, and finally the reactivation stage, which is the repeat of the progression of the infection. Causes/ risk factors of Epstein - Barr virus Age There is evidence that most of the primary infections of EBV occur during childhood with latent infection of B-lymphocytes. In this regard, infants only became susceptible to EBV as soon as maternal antibody protection (present at birth) disappears (National Centre for Infectious Diseases). In effect, this implies that young children, especially infants who were not under the care of their parents, risked infections with the virus. However, it is crucial to point out that research and evidence indicates that about 95% of the United States adult population, aged between thirty-five and forty years, has ever been infected with the virus (National Centre for Infectious Diseases). Hence, this implies that everyone risked infection of the virus despite his or her age with susceptibility to the virus occurring during infancy. Gender Gender does not play a risk factor for infection with the virus. Nonetheless, a study by the International Agency for Research on Cancer in 1997 pointed out that the chance of infection with EBV was 1.2 in every 100,000 people for females while the male were 3.7 for every 100,000 people tested (Ekburanawat et al.). The statistics are intermediate to China and Western Countries statistics although that does not indicate a clear implication for men to be at a greater risk of infection than women did. Other Factors Importantly, families do not pose a risk for infection with EBV. However, people exposed to other people with infectious mononucleosis had a previous infection of EBV and were therefore not at a risk of infection or even the infectious mononucleosis. Furthermore, the transmission process of EBV required contact with saliva of an infected person from the mouth of the individual. In this case, transmission of the virus through other factors such as water, air, blood, and any other modes did not take place, which effectively means that transmission across the family is highly unlikely (National Centre for Infectious Diseases). Nevertheless, cases of EBV are rare in Africa although they are rampant in the developed countries (Arum Consult 4). The incubation period of the disease differs from an individual to another individual. In this case, the period ranges from 4 to 6 weeks with a person’s infectious mononucleosis able to spread the infection to other people in these weeks before the visibility and appearance of the symptoms of the disease (National Centre for Infectious Diseases). Nonetheless, the presence of the virus in saliva of most healthy people makes it a challenge to recommend special precautions and procedures for isolating people suspected to have the virus. In fact, experts point out that it is possible for healthy people to transmit and carry the virus throughout their life (National Centre for Infectious Diseases). Hence, the transmission of the virus makes it challenging to prevent it due to this primary reservoir transmission from one person to another person. Diagnosis of Epstein - Barr virus Clinical Diagnosis The symptoms for primary infections from EBV include primary infections exhibited by fever, myalgia, sore throat, lymphadenopathy, and hepatosplenomegaly. However, the immune-compromised patients with advanced ages displayed the illnesses such as Thrombocytopenia, yocarditis, hemolytic anemia, hepatitis, and endemic Burkitt lymphoma (Mehta 2436). There exist other numerous symptoms at advanced stages of EBV. Among these symptoms, include T-cells lymphoma, Duncan disease, and others (Mehta 2436). Lab Tests Results EBVs infectious nature is, and it is crucial to carry extreme, thorough, and conclusive tests. In this regard, a physician will order for an “antibody titers for Epstein- Barr virus (EBV) viral capsid antigen (EBV EA-IgG)”, and “elevated EBV EA-IgG antibodies,” whose objective is to investigate the evidence a recent active infection (Jackson and Riordan). In addition, a physician can conduct a procedure called Semi-Quantitative Enzyme-Linked Immunosobent Assay. In this test, EBV and Early D Antigen (EA-D) are utilized in confirmation of “chronic active mononucleosis” (Mehta 2437). Postmortem Tests During the postmortem inquiries, the pathologist must first specify the causal agent as EBV, which underlines the importance of identifying the specimen. In postmortem test for EBV, clotted blood or serum is commonly used. The process also involves the identification of a collection kit for the specimen, in this case the Blood serum (BL-S) kit. After extraction of the specimen, a Virologist conducts a Chemiluminescence Immunoassay (CLIA) test with the results out within 5 days after carrying out the test (Mehta 2436). Treatment Medication remains the most important remedy to EBV infections. However, no existence of approved treatment for EBV-related diseases is documented. Nonetheless, numerous drugs in the pharmaceutical world have limited use in treatment of primary EBV infections. For instance, a drug called Maribavir, acyclic nucleoside, and nucleotide analogues inhibit the EBV DNA. Precise acyclic nucleoside drugs are drugs such as Penciclovir, Famciclovir, and Valganciclovir. The acyclic nucleotides include Cidofovir and Adeforvir: The analogues of pyrophosphate include phosphonoformic, and possibly 4-oxo-dihyroquinolines (Gershburg and Pagano 278). All these drugs target the viral DNA polymerase, which inhibits the reactivity of primary EBV. Hormonal treatment is essential in treatment since psychological stress may result to hormonal imbalance. This has the potential of “decreasing EBV-specific cytotoxic T-cell function, which contributes to increased antibodies to latent herpesviruses” (Stowe, Pierson and Barrett 891). In this regard, hormonal replacement is crucial in treatment of EBV related infections due to psychological stress. Conclusion Based on the foregoing, it is evident that EBV is a prevalent infection in the world’s population. In this regard, a virus whose discovery in 1964 was critical does not discriminate on patients. Hence, the young and the old can acquire the virus without individuals from a country, region, or geographical region at a greater risk than other individuals in other countries did. Nonetheless, it is imperative to point out that the virus was more prevalent in developed nations than in Africa. In this case, research does not indicate the reasons why Africa’s prevalence is low. In addition, the infection from the virus does not have a known cure although hormonal imbalances can be resolved through hormonal injections and stress management. References Epstein, M. Anthony, Bert Achong, and Yvonne M. Barr. Virus particles in cultured lymphoblasts from Burkitts lymphoma. The Lancet 1 (March 28, 1964): 702–703. Print. Figueiredo C. P., et al. Detection of Torque teno virus in Epstein-Barr virus positive and negative lymph nodes of patients with Hodgkin lymphoma. Leuk Lymphoma 48.4(2007): 731-735. Print. Gershburg, Edward, and Joseph S. Pagano. Epstein-Barr virus Infections. Prospects for Treatment. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 56(2007): 277-281. Print. Jackson, James A., et al. Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) Infections in Patients. The Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine 11: (4th Quarter 1996). Web. 1 Dec. 2012. . National Center for Infectious Diseases. Epstein-Barr Virus and Infectious Mononucleosis. 16 May 2005. Web. 1 Dec. 2012. . Odumade, Oludare, Kristin A. Hogquist, and Henry H. Balfour Jr. Progress and Problems in Understanding and Managing Primary Epstein-Barr Virus Infections. Clinical Microbiology Reviews 24.1 (2011): 193-209. Print. Mehta, Paulette. ARUP Consult: The Physicians Guide to Laboratory Test Selection and InterpretationARUP Consult: The Physicians Guide to Laboratory Test Selection and Interpretation. The Journal of the American Medical Association 307.22 (2012): 2436-2437. Print. Robertson, Erle S. Epstein-Barr Virus. Norwich, Horizon Scientific Press, 2005. Print. Schueler, Stephen, John H. Beckett, and Scott Gettings. Epstein Barr Infection Incidence. 17 Mar. 2009. Web. 1 Dec. 2012. . Stowe, Raymond P., Duale L. Pierson, and Alan Barrett. Elevated Stress Levels Relate to Epstein-Barr Virus Reactivation in Astronauts. Psychosomatic Medicine 63 (2001): 891-895. Print. Read More