The Undetected Occurrence of PTSD in Soldiers - Assignment Example

Project Outline Problem Statement A. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) occurs at various levels. These levels could either be micro, mezzo or macro (Ozer, Best and Lipsey, 2003). B. This paper shall seek to outline the undetected occurrence of PTSD in soldiers, with regard to the various levels of occurrence as outlined. II. Literature Review A. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) refers to the severe anxiety that results from exposure to certain psychological traumatizing events according to Agaibi and Wilson (2005) and Friedman (2003). As a result of the traumatic experiences, an individual may lose the ability to cope with certain situations. B. This may lead to the exhibition of numerous symptoms pertaining to the occurrence of PTSD. These symptoms may include reoccurrence of traumatic events experienced in the form of nightmares and flashbacks. Victims of traumatic events may also suffer from withdrawal symptoms and other extreme conditions such as anger issues. C. For formal diagnosis, these symptoms must be prevalent over a prolonged spell of time resulting in severe impairment of the victim. III. Theoretical Rationale A. Psychological trauma resulting from the occurrence of certain events often leads to PTSD. B. Since soldiers are prone to exposure to various traumatic experiences in their endeavours, these traumatic events may lead to the occurrence of PTSD amongst the soldiers. Thus, this creates a need for the detection and prevention of PTSD, especially among soldiers. C. Since the cause of PTSD is an identifiable event, people with PTSD can be identified and then subjected to suitable preventive interventions. IV. This paper shall, thus, outline a strategic intervention method with regard to the occurrence of PTSD among soldiers. V. Strategic Intervention There exist a number of strategic interventions with regard to the occurrence of PTSD in the society (Bryant, Creamer and O’Donnell, 2009; Foa, Keane, Friedman and Cohen, 2009; Forbes, Creamer and Bisson, 2010; Sones, Thorp and Raskind, 2011; Ursano, Bell and Eth, 2004). These potential intervention measures can be divided into three. 1. Psychological Interventions a) Psychological interventions offer a wide variety of intervention methods for adults with respect to the occurrence of PTSD (Gray, Maguen and Litz, 2004; Hoge, Worthington and Nagurney, 2012; Jakupcak, Roberts, Martell, Mulick, Michael and Reed, 2006; Ruzek, Brymer and Jacobs, 2007; Wood, Murphy and McLay, 2009). b) Thus, some of the psychological intervention methods with regard to the prevention and treatment of PTSD include psychological firs aid (PFA); cognitive therapies and exposure-based therapies among other interventions. 2. Pharmacological Interventions a) Since the occurrence of PTSD can also be attributed to biological pathways, there exist various pharmacological intervention methods (Holbrook, Galarneau and Dye, 2010; Matar, Cohen and Kaplan, 2006; McCleery and Harvey, 2004; Schelling, Roozendaal and De, 2004; Stein, Kerridge and Dimsdale, 2007). b) These methods are mainly concerned with the treatment of PTSD. These methods mainly involve the employment of certain drugs such as morphine. 3. Emerging Interventions a) These represent the current attempts geared towards the prevention and treatment of PTSD other than the standard methods of intervention (Southwick, Davis and Aikins, 2007). b) The interventions envisage the use of complementary, alternative medicine (CAM) such as yoga and therapeutic measures. c) However, the efficacy of such methods is yet to be proved scientifically. VI. Selected Intervention A. Therefore, the most suitable intervention method with regard to undetected occurrence of PTSD amongst soldiers would be a psychological intervention. B. Specifically, the chosen mode of intervention would be Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD) and Critical Incident Stress Management (CISM). C. This is owed to the fact that such debriefing interventions would be geared towards providing the necessary information concerning the occurrence of PTSD amongst the soldiers (Barboza, 2005). The interventions would also create a platform for the affected soldiers to share the traumatic experiences with other concerned parties (Schnurr and Green, 2004). This would significantly contribute to the reduction of the stigmatization associated with the occurrence of PTSD among soldiers. D. This implies that CISD and CISM provide a suitable intervention platform for individuals who may be affected indirectly by traumatic events such as soldiers. E. If applied effectively, these intervention methods could provide the necessary channels for the detection, prevention and treatment of the occurrence of PTSD amongst the soldiers. Annotated Bibliography Agaibi, C. E., & Wilson, J. P. (2005). Trauma, PTSD, and resilience: A review of the literature. Trauma, Violence, and Abuse, 6(1): 195-216. This article provides an overview of the trauma that result from violent and abusive actions with regard to PTSD victims. Thus, soldiers suffering from PTSD may fail to be clearly detected due to this trauma associated with PTSD. Barboza, K. (2005). Critical incident stress debriefing (CISD): Efficacy in question. National School of Psychology Bulletin, 3(2): 49-70. This article provides an overview of one of the methods of intervention with regard to prevention and treatment of PTSD. Bryant, R. A., Creamer M., & O’Donnell, M. (2009). A study of the protective function of acute morphine administration on subsequent posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 65(5): 438-440. This article also shades light on one of the methods of intervention. However, the article focuses on treatment of PTSD as opposed to preventive measures. Foa, E. B., Keane, T. M., Friedman, M. J., & Cohen, J. (2009). Effective treatments for PTSD: Practice guidelines from the international society for traumatic stress studies. New York, NY. Guilford Press. This book provides guidelines for the effective treatment of cases involving the occurrence of PTSD. Forbes, D., Creamer, M., & Bisson, J. I. (2010). A guide to guidelines for the treatment of PTSD and related conditions. Journal of Trauma and Stress, 23(5): 537-552. This article provides further guidelines on the treatment of PTSD and other similar conditions. Friedman, M. J. (2003). Post-traumatic stress disorder: The latest assessment and treatment strategies. Kansas City, MO. Compact Clinicals Press. The book provides an overview of the occurrence of PTSD with regard to the latest advancements and assessments geared towards effective treatment of the disease. Gray, M. J., Maguen S., & Litz, B. T. (2004). Acute psychological impact of disaster and large scale trauma: Limitations of traditional interventions and future practice recommendations. Prehospital Disaster Medicine, 19(1): 64-72. The article shades light on the psychological impact resulting from the occurrence of PTSD. The article also outlines the limitations of standard methods of intervention, thus, outlining recommendations for future practice. Hoge, E. A., Worthington, J. J. & Nagurney, J. T. (2012). Effect of acute posttrauma propranolol on PTSD outcome and physiological responses during script-driven imagery. Journal of Neuroscience Therapy, 18(1): 21-27. The article provides an outline of one of the intervention methods geared towards the treatment of PTSD. Holbrook, T. L., Galarneau, M. R., & Dye, J. L. (2010). Morphine use after combat injury in Iraq and post-traumatic stress disorder. National English Journal of Medicine, 362(2): 110-117. This article outlines one of the intervention methods that were employed in the treatment of PTSD following a combat experience in Iraq. Jakupcak, M., Roberts, L. J., Martell, C., Mulick, P., Michael, S., & Reed, R. (2006). A pilot study of behavioral activation for veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 19(2): 387-391. The article outlines one of the behavioural interventions in the treatment and prevention of the occurrence of PTSD. Matar, M. A., Cohen H., & Kaplan Z. (2006). The effect of early poststressor intervention with sertraline on behavioral responses in an animal model of post-traumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology, 31(12): 2610-2618. This article further outlines advanced methods of intervention with regards early diagnosis and prevention of PTSD. McCleery, J. M., & Harvey, A. G. (2004). Integration of psychological and biological approaches to trauma memory: Implications for pharmacological prevention of PTSD. Journal of Trauma and Stress, 17(6): 485-96. The article outlines the effects of the employment of various pharmacological intervention methods in the prevention and treatment of PTSD. Ozer, E. J., Best, S. R., & Lipsey, T. L. (2003). Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: A meta-analysis. Psychology Bulletin, 129(1): 52-73. This article outlines a procedure for the analysis of the occurrence of PTSD condition in adults. Therefore, the article provides crucial information with regard to the diagnosis of PTSD in adults. Ruzek, J. I., Brymer, M. J., & Jacobs, A. K. (2007). Psychological first aid. Journal of Mental Health Council, 29(1): 17-49. This article outlines a psychologically based intervention method in the diagnosis and prevention of PTSD. Schelling G., Roozendaal B., & De D. J. (2004). Can posttraumatic stress disorder be prevented with glucocorticoids? Annual New York Academic Science, 1032(60): 158-66. This article outlines the use of a certain pharmacological intervention method in the prevention of PTSD. Schnurr, P. P., & Green, B. L. (2004). Understanding relationships among trauma, post traumatic stress disorder, and health outcomes. Advances in Mind-Body Medicine, 20(1): 18-29. This article sheds some light on the relationship between PTSD and other health outcomes. Thus, the article is vital in the provision of the necessary information for comparison of the occurrence of PTSD with other health outcomes. Sones, H. M., Thorp, S. R., & Raskind, M. (2011). Prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatric Clinic of North America, 34(1): 79-94. This article outlines various preventive measures undertaken towards the prevention of occurrence of PTSD. Southwick, S. M., Davis L. L., & Aikins, D. E. (2007). Neurobiological alterations associated with PTSD. New York, NY. Guilford Press. This book outlines complex surgical interventions associated with the prevention and treatment of PTSD. Stein, M. B., Kerridge, C., & Dimsdale J. E. (2007). Pharmacotherapy to prevent PTSD: Results from a randomized controlled proof-of-concept trial in physically injured patients. Journal of Trauma and Stress, 20(6): 923-32. This article provides results of randomized pharmacotherapy trials. Thus, the article provides crucial data with regard to the employment of pharmacotherapy intervention methods in the prevention of the occurrence of PTSD. Ursano, R. J., Bell, C., & Eth, S. (2004). Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161(11): 3-31. This article also provides further guidelines on the treatment of PTSD victims with regard to the measures undertaken in the practice. Wood, D. P., Murphy, J., & McLay, R. (2009). Cost effectiveness of virtual reality graded exposure therapy with physiological monitoring for the treatment of combat related post traumatic stress disorder. Student Health Technological Information, 144(2): 223-229. This article shades light on the employment of various therapeutic intervention measures towards the treatment of PTSD. References Agaibi, C. E., & Wilson, J. P. (2005). Trauma, PTSD, and resilience: A review of the literature. Trauma, Violence, and Abuse, 6(1): 195-216. Barboza, K. (2005). Critical incident stress debriefing (CISD): Efficacy in question. National School of Psychology Bulletin, 3(2): 49-70. Bryant, R. A., Creamer M., & O’Donnell, M. (2009). A study of the protective function of acute morphine administration on subsequent posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 65(5): 438-440. Foa, E. B., Keane, T. M., Friedman, M. J., & Cohen, J. (2009). Effective treatments for PTSD: Practice guidelines from the international society for traumatic stress studies. New York, NY. Guilford Press. Forbes, D., Creamer, M., & Bisson, J. I. (2010). A guide to guidelines for the treatment of PTSD and related conditions. Journal of Trauma and Stress, 23(5): 537-552. Friedman, M. J. (2003). Post-traumatic stress disorder: The latest assessment and treatment strategies. Kansas City, MO. Compact Clinicals Press. Gray, M. J., Maguen S., & Litz, B. T. (2004). Acute psychological impact of disaster and large scale trauma: Limitations of traditional interventions and future practice recommendations. Prehospital Disaster Medicine, 19(1): 64-72. Hoge, E. A., Worthington, J. J. & Nagurney, J. T. (2012). Effect of acute posttrauma propranolol on PTSD outcome and physiological responses during script-driven imagery. Journal of Neuroscience Therapy, 18(1): 21-27. Holbrook, T. L., Galarneau, M. R., & Dye, J. L. (2010). Morphine use after combat injury in Iraq and post-traumatic stress disorder. National English Journal of Medicine, 362(2): 110-117. Jakupcak, M., Roberts, L. J., Martell, C., Mulick, P., Michael, S., & Reed, R. (2006). A pilot study of behavioral activation for veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 19(2): 387-391. Matar, M. A., Cohen H., & Kaplan Z. (2006). The effect of early poststressor intervention with sertraline on behavioral responses in an animal model of post-traumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology, 31(12): 2610-2618. McCleery, J. M., & Harvey, A. G. (2004). Integration of psychological and biological approaches to trauma memory: Implications for pharmacological prevention of PTSD. Journal of Trauma and Stress, 17(6): 485-96. Ozer, E. J., Best, S. R., & Lipsey, T. L. (2003). Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: A meta-analysis. Psychology Bulletin, 129(1): 52-73. Ruzek, J. I., Brymer, M. J., & Jacobs, A. K. (2007). Psychological first aid. Journal of Mental Health Council, 29(1): 17-49. Schelling G., Roozendaal B., & De D. J. (2004). Can posttraumatic stress disorder be prevented with glucocorticoids? Annual New York Academic Science, 1032(60): 158-66. Schnurr, P. P., & Green, B. L. (2004). Understanding relationships among trauma, post traumatic stress disorder, and health outcomes. Advances in Mind-Body Medicine, 20(1): 18-29. Sones, H. M., Thorp, S. R., & Raskind, M. (2011). Prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatric Clinic of North America, 34(1): 79-94. Southwick, S. M., Davis L. L., & Aikins, D. E. (2007). Neurobiological alterations associated with PTSD. New York, NY. Guilford Press. Stein, M. B., Kerridge, C., & Dimsdale J. E. (2007). Pharmacotherapy to prevent PTSD: Results from a randomized controlled proof-of-concept trial in physically injured patients. Journal of Trauma and Stress, 20(6): 923-32. Ursano, R. J., Bell, C., & Eth, S. (2004). Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161(11): 3-31. Wood, D. P., Murphy, J., & McLay, R. (2009). Cost effectiveness of virtual reality graded exposure therapy with physiological monitoring for the treatment of combat related post traumatic stress disorder. Student Health Technological Information, 144(2): 223-229. Read More