Gender Differences in Aggression - Assignment Example

Gender Differences in Aggression Men and women express their anger and aggression in different ways. From our daily observations of other people and based on our personal assessment of our own displays of aggression, it is obvious to see that men and women express their anger and aggression in varied ways. We are most likely to see men expressing their aggression physically, and see women expressing their anger verbally. The norms in our society are so much based on what we usually see in ourselves and other people. Where the man is likely to throw a punch against another aggressor, women, in contrast, have the reputation of mouthing off their anger at other people. Women are sometimes labeled as nags, whereas men are labeled as wife beaters. This paper explores the different expressions of aggression by men and women. It presents different viewpoints, opinions, and studies by different sociologists and psychologists regarding gender differences in aggression. “Aggression is an intentional behavior that is done to cause harm or pain to another person” (Encyclopedia of Psychology, 2008). The important point in this definition of aggression is the intent to cause harm to another person. Harm caused to another human being through accidents is not considered as aggression. Aggression can either be physical or verbal, and it may be successful or unsuccessful (Spaulding, 2008). Nevertheless, whatever form aggression may take, it is always important to note that aggression may be caused by various factors and reasons. Biologists will claim biological reasons for gender differences in aggression; sociologists will credit socio-cultural factors; and some psychologists will lay claim to both socio-cultural and biological reasons for gender differences in aggression. These points shall be discussed by this paper. Biological factors affecting gender differences in aggression Aggression is often attributed to biological factors. These biological factors mostly have something to do with the body’s hormones. Testosterone in adult males is “about ten times as high as those in adult females” (Goldberg, 1993, as quoted by Sanderson, 2001). This hormone is largely credited for aggression, dominance, and competitive behavior in men. Many biologists and practitioners believe that men are naturally prone to more aggressive behavior because of this hormone. In the process, they are also more prone to physical outbursts of anger and aggression as compared to their female counterparts. A research studying levels of testosterone in prison inmates revealed that those convicted of violent crimes had higher levels of testosterone than those convicted of non-violent offenses. The study went on to conclude that “if the level of testosterone impacts aggressiveness, we can conclude that men are more aggressive than women” (Nazaryan, 2008). Scientists have not been fully able to credit either biology or sociology for this phenomenon, however they agree that either one of these two factors are often responsible for aggressive behavior in men and women. Aggression is also linked to the brain, more particularly the amygdala. Stimulation of the amygdala causes animals to be violent. When it is blocked, animals become docile. This reaction is more common in animals, not so much in humans who have more control over their amygdala (Spaulding, 2008). Brain chemicals also affect displays of aggression. Serotonin can inhibit impulsive aggression. When serotonin flow in the brain is interrupted, violent behavior can occur. Alcohol is known to decrease levels of serotonin in the brain, which may account for increase in violent behavior in alcoholics. Some authors (Maccoby & Jacklin,1974 as cited by Gilbert, et.al, 1998) support the role of biology in aggression. They base their conclusion on several theories. The first theory is that men are more aggressive than women in all cultures; second, males are more aggressive than women, early in life-even without societal and environmental influence; third, greater aggressiveness in males is found in primates, not just in humans; and finally, greater aggression is attributed to hormones. These theories have not been fully supported by sociologists and psychologists, but Maccoby and Jacklin (as cited by Gilbert, et.al, 1998) stress that differences in gender aggression cannot be fully attributed to biological differences. However, they emphasize that biological differences serve as the basic foundation by which other variables that later lead to aggressive behavior develop. Sociological factors affecting gender differences in aggression Many sociologists disagree that aggression is a product of biology, they instead subscribe to a more sociological and environmental theory to explain the differences in gender aggression. They insist that differences in expression of aggression between males and females are due to patterns of behavior transmitted through the socialization process. Goldberg rejects these ideas by insisting that “little boys are taught to be aggressive and little girls are taught to be nurturant because little boys really are naturally more aggressive and little girls really are naturally more nurturant in the first place” (1993, as quoted by Sanderson, 2001). However, it is undeniable that hormones cannot be wholly credited for gender differences in aggression. There are other factors which help nurture a person’s biological make-up. These are sociological and cultural factors that are slowly integrated into the person’s personality through his parents, his teachers, his friends, and society in general. Gender differences in aggression are usually seen in conflict resolution. Males tend to manifest a more physical form of aggression in resolving conflicts. Females are more likely to use an indirect form of aggression, and men usually favor a more direct expression of aggression. Females also tend to feel guilty after using aggression, while men often do not feel remorse after having reverted to aggression in expressing their feelings. Females tend to be more sympathetic towards others. Some sociologists believe this to contribute to gender differences in aggression, where “individuals with higher levels of sympathy and empathy were less likely to aggressive” (Bordens & Horowitz, 2001). They believe this to be the reason why women usually tend to be less aggressive than men. Women often take a sympathetic stand towards other people even in the face of aggression. They often opt for a more peaceful resolution of conflicts without any of the conflicting parties resorting to any type of aggression. Gender differences in aggression are manifested in children as young as two to three years of age. Some sociologists believe that little boys and girls usually manifest aggression not so much because of their biological make-up, but because of the way they were raised. Boys are given toy soldiers and toy guns to play with, while girls are given Barbie dolls. “Both boys and girls are encouraged to engage in gender-typed activities, and activities deemed appropriate for boys are more aggressive than those for girls” (Lytton & Romney, 1991, as cited by Bordens & Horowitz, 2001). A psychology research team from the University of Arizona established that, at very early stages of their development, little boys (in contrast to girls) can already manifest physically aggressive behavior. And little girls also display less physically aggressive displays of emotion. Their research established that male aggression was “linked to poor peer relations, delinquency and attention and hyperactivity problems, while indirect aggression was more common in highly social children who also had problems with anxiety and depression” (Joelving, 2008). At around age 4, boys and girls are more likely to manifest gender differences in aggression, with boys engaging in more rough-and-tumble play, and girls opting for less physically aggressive play. Prohibitions in aggressive behavior are also more likely for girls than boys. Girls who tend to be physically aggressive are not favored by their peers because they are expected to display more feminine and refined behavior (Meichenbaum, 2006). Boys also tend to make-up easily and quickly after fighting with other boys. Whereas, girls tend to display hostilities with other girls they fought with for longer periods of time. Girls’ fights usually disrupt the social dynamics in the group they belong to because of these prolonged periods of hostilities. A study conducted by Donald Meichenbaum (2006), submitted to the University of Waterloo revealed that girls usually opt for more indirect and verbal forms of aggression. This is seen in their proneness for collusion, gossiping, character definition, and name calling, among others. The study revealed that this type of behavior is very common in same-sex peer groups. This behavior is almost to be expected because it usually takes more than two people to gossip. The research also established that “girls in early adolescence tend to be more verbally aggressive than girls in later adolescence” (Meichenbaum, 2006). The paper went on to say that girls are more likely to use nonverbal forms (eye-rolling, disdainful facial expression) of aggression to express their anger or frustration. The research also observed that females are less likely to engage in seriously violent behavior. Boys are more likely to carry weapons than girls, and when they do, they are more likely to engage in dangerous and violent aggressive behavior with other people. Male aggression is sometimes viewed as sexual jealousy and possessiveness. Based on a study by Archer (2000, as cited by Denisiuk, 2004), “sexual and physical aggression [is] more common in men than women”. In relationships, males are usually aggressive outside the relationship, and women tend to be more aggressive within the relationship. As to physical aggression, women often resort to scratching their partners. They also may kick or slap their partners in anger. It has often been thought that men will act in a physically aggressive manner towards women; however, recent studies have revealed that some women are not above showing physical aggression towards men (Denisiuk, 2004). However, they only display it at a lesser frequency than men. According to some sociologists, men are also more likely to show hostile aggression with the ultimate goal of inflicting pain or harm to their victim. They also claim that women usually go for instrumental aggression, wherein they have some other ultimate goal in mind-such as availing access to valued funds. This often makes women more deceptive, their motivations and intent to harm less obvious because of their more indirect manifestations of aggression (Taylor, 2004). Studies in stress-response suggest that men and women manifest different emotional responses to stressful situations. According to Rudolph (2002, as cited by Verona, et.al., n.d), “women report slightly more internalizing emotions, including fear, sadness or anxiety, than men in response to stress”. Women also tend to internalize more than men about their aggressive behavior. Some psychologists theorize that the fight or flight response is more common in men. Women tend to take on a ‘tend and befriend’ behavior in response to stressful situations. Some studies have also revealed that men are more likely to vent and display their anger, and women tend to use coping strategies which are less aggressive. One of the manifestations of aggression seen in society today is bullying. Girls are more likely to bully other girls through their peer groups. They resort to spreading hurtful information to other girls about the person they wish to bully. “These are called “relational” bullying because they attack relationships and friendships” (Beran, 2008). Boys tend to be more physically aggressive in bullying. They bully other people by hitting, kicking, or punching them. A study recently revealed that college boys tend to be bullied more than their female counterparts. Males are more accepting than females of the realities of bullying. Society has become more understanding of bullying saying that, bullying is just “boys being boys”. And this often makes girls accept boys’ bullying behavior as natural behavior. Another study revealed that the size difference between men and women plays a large role in determining the presence or absence of aggression. Women see the relatively larger size of men as too much of an imposing threat for them to deal with. Therefore, women avoid acting aggressively against men. However, this does not stop them from aggressing against men; they just do it through more subtle methods. By using this indirect approach, men find it difficult to realize that they are the subject of aggression from females. And this makes it difficult for men to respond accordingly to this type of indirect aggression. The traditional role of females is that of a caregiver and nurturer. Direct aggression is in contrast to this role. In order to ensure the survival of the human race, different coping mechanisms are made part of human nature. “[N]ature evolved different coping mechanisms for women to the sympathetic and hormonal responses of stress, resulting in the display of indirect aggression” (Undergraduate Research Opportunities Program, n.d). Although men are known to be more aggressive than women, it is undeniable that women also commit acts of aggression and violence. Men usually do not need an external stimulant to be aggressive, but women will also react in much the same way when they are angry or frustrated. “In other words, it takes an external force to bring out the aggression in women” (Spaulding, 2008). Many psychologists believe that these gender differences in aggression cannot all be credited to one’s biology and genes. They admit that culture also plays a role in shaping the different manifestations of aggression. It is the norm for men to be aggressive or violent and for women to be sweet and docile. This is often seen in the movies that men and women usually watch. Men go for the more action-type and violent movies, and women grow up watching love stories and musicals. This tradition and norm has been passed from generation to generation. It has been accepted by most everyone as expected and natural practices in our lives. Many psychologists also believe that since males are usually stronger than females, they are more prone to expressing their aggression physically. As regards direct verbal aggression, some researchers report that there is a greater frequency among boys than among girls. They also report that there is no relevant difference between men and women as regards expressions of aggression, however in instances where a difference was seen, “it is usually indicating higher scores of direct verbal aggression among males” (Osterman, 1999). If men were to show more verbal aggression than women, this may be explained by the fact that they have greater physical strength than women. Consequently, verbal aggression on their part has a more credible and intimidating effect on the opposite sex. Boys usually socialize in large groups with limited boundaries; girls prefer small and tight knit peer groups or even just one best friend. Girls discuss their feelings and emotions more often than boys do. Girls “use ‘she said...and then he said...’ expressions frequently” (Goodwin, 1990, as quoted by Osterman, 1999). This pattern in their friendships and relationships usually dictates the precedents of relationship formed by socially manipulative and aggressive behavior. Recipients of aggression also differ. Studies have shown that both genders were less likely to display aggressive behavior against women (Gilbert, et.al., 1998). There is a hesitation for both genders about displaying aggressive acts against women; hence men are more likely the victims of aggression in both sexes. Harris (1993, as cited by Gilbert, et.al., 1998) also revealed that women were more likely to feel angered by condescending behavior from men. Women dislike being talked down to by men, and they often display aggressive reactions to these types of behavior from men. On the other hand, men are more likely to feel angered by aggressive attack or behavior from another man. They consider it a serious offense to be challenged or aggressively regarded by other men. Sexual infidelity is more likely to trigger physically aggressive behavior from women than men. In these instances, women usually include their rivals as recipients of their aggressive behavior (Paul, et.al., 1994 as cited by Gilbert, et.al., 1998). They find it as well within their rights to include their rivals in their indignation and aggression. There are distinct gender differences in expressions of aggression. Many sociologists stress that a person’s upbringing can be credited for the gender differences in manifestations of aggression. Men and women are molded by society to display their aggression in more acceptable ways. Hence, when men display more physical forms of aggression, society accepts this as a natural part of their biological make-up and sociological upbringing. And when women display physically aggressive behavior, they are frowned upon. Women are discouraged from being physically aggressive against other people. This does not stop them from adopting more underhanded forms of aggression, such as gossiping, slander, and verbal manipulation. There are no hard and fast rules that demand us to choose only one reason for gender differences in aggression. Suffice it to say that, our unique nature as human beings can account for our diverse manifestations of aggression. Works Cited Aggression (2008) Encyclopedia of Psychology. Retrieved 05 December 2008 from http://www.enotes.com/gale-psychology-encyclopedia/aggression Beran, T. (2008). Bullying: What are the Differences between Boys and Girls? Education.Com. Retrieved 06 December 2008 from http://www.education.com/reference/article/Ref_Bullying_Differences/ Bjorkqvist, B. (1994) Sex Differences in Physical, Verbal, and Indirect Aggression: A Review of Recent Research. Abo Akademi University. Retrieved 05 December 2008 from http://www.vasa.abo.fi/svf/up/articles/sexdiff_a_review.PDF Bordens, K. & Horowitz, I. (2001) Social Psychology. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Denisiuk, J. (November 2004). Explanations for Sex Differences. Personality Research. Retrieved 05 December 2008 from http://www.personalityresearch.org/papers/denisiuk.html Gender Differences and Aggression. (2008). Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. (2008). Retrieved 05 December 2008 from http://www.rpi.edu/~verwyc/oh14.htm Gender Specificity of Aggressive Behavior: Interactions with Cynical Hostility (n.d). Undergraduate Research Opportunities Program Retrieved 05 December 2008 from http://www.urop.uci.edu/grants/sample_proposals/UROP%20--%20Social%20Ecology%203.pdf Gilbert. D., et.al (1998). The Handbook of Social Psychology. New York: Oxford University Press. Joelving, F. (8 December 2008) Are Girls Really Meaner Than Boys? Science Line. Retrieved 05 December 2008 from http://scienceline.org/2008/12/08/ask-joelving-mean-girls-boys-gossip-social-aggression/ Meichenbaum, D. (2006) Comparison of Aggression in Boys and Girls: A Case for Gender- Specific Interventions. Melissa Institute. Retrieved 06 December 2008 from http://www.melissainstitute.org/documents/2006/Meich_06_genderdifferences.PDF Nazaryan, N. (29 April 2008) Gender and Aggression. Stop Violence against Women. Retrieved 04 December 2008 from http://www.stopvaw.org/Gender_and_aggression.html Osterman, K. (1999) Developmental Trends and Sex Differences in Conflict Behavior. Abo Akademi University. Retrieved 06 December 2008 from http://www.vasa.abo.fi/svf/up/diss.htm Sanderson, S. (2001). The Evolution of Human Sociality: A Darwinian Conflict Perspective. Lanham, Md: Rowman & Littlefield. Spaulding, K. (26 August 2008) Violence and Aggression. Knol.com. Retrieved 04 December 2008 from http://knol.google.com/k/kevin-spaulding/violence-and-aggression/3smazt4fj02nv/17# Taylor, M. (November 2004) The Importance of Sex Differences in Aggression. Rochester Institute of Technology. Retrieved 05 December 2008 from http://www.personalityresearch.org/papers/denisiuk.html Verona, E., et.al. (n.d) Gender Differences in Emotional and Overt/Covert Aggressive Responses to Stress. Addiction Research Lab University of Wisconsin-Madison. Retrieved 05 December 2008 from http://dionysus.psych.wisc.edu/Lit/InPress/VeronaE(AggressiveBehavior).pdf Read More