The Roles of Women in a Global World - Research Paper Example

THE ROLES OF WOMEN IN A GLOBAL WORLD Globalization is a world-wide phenomenon with implications for families around the world. This essay will analyze the differing roles of men and women in the United States looking at such factors as economic/labor roles, marriage and other issues which transcend the public and private spheres for the American family of the twenty-first century. The second component of this essay will be a comparative analysis with the American family to the Arab family, generally speaking but also clearly described by Homa Hoodfar, in her book Between Marriage and the Market and by Haideh Moghissi in her book Women and Islam. This essay will discuss the impact of globalization on different types of families in different societies and cultures. The terms ‘traditional’, ‘modern’ and ‘postmodern’ will be defined, elaborated upon and discussed on a continuum of change. Social change, in the face of globalization, will be discussed with relation to how cultures and families have grown or resisted the forces of globalization. We now turn to an exploration of the types of families in the world and follow with a concise description of the American family of today. Families on the Continuum of Change Ranging from ‘traditional’ to ‘postmodern’, there are a variety of family forms in this world. For the theoretical purposes of this essay, a family will be defined as “two or more people who are in a relationship created by birth, marriage or choice.” (Roopnarine & Gielen 33). There are a multitude of family forms and family types across the globe and the global family is a social unit in a constant state of evolution. The ‘traditional’ family is a heterosexual, nuclear family headed by two parents in which the husband is the primary breadwinner and the wife is the homemaker. On the far left side of the continuum of change, the traditional nuclear family model is widespread across the globe and represents a traditional gendered division of labour, both within the house as well as outside of the home. In the Western world, the traditional model is becoming less and less viable as many families require the incomes of both parents. Women’s increased education and employment prospects have made the transition from the traditional model to the modern familial model more and more prevalent in modern Western society (Bossen 128-133; Roopnarine & Gielen 32-34). As with the traditional family, the ‘modern family’ is nuclear in the sense that it involves the cohabitation of two heterosexual partners but differs in that it involves dual earners as both the man and the woman work outside of the home to earn money. While both husband and wife work outside of the home in paid labor, it is important to note that the gendered division of labour within the home of the modern family has not necessarily changed. Women, within the modern family, still bear the brunt of housekeeping, child rearing and basic familial chores. Homa Hoodfar eloquently describes the traditional family model in her analysis of the Arab family in Cairo (Roopnarine & Gielen 32-34; Hoodfar 13-30). On the far end of the continuum of change is the post-modern family. A post-modern family can be defined as one is which there is a “deconstruction or transformation of at least one aspect of the traditional family” (Roopnarine & Gielen 34). An example of a post-modern family would be a lesbian or gay parented family or a family headed by a single mother. The term post-modern can encompass a lot including, as mentioned above, lesbian and gay parented families, families headed by single mothers, extended families, de-gendered families and families who conceive children through the use of reproductive technology. A de-gendered family is one in which traditional gender roles, such as the male as breadwinner and female as homemaker, are rejected. In terms of change, post-modern families are becoming increasingly common in many countries of the Western world, such as the United States and represent an evolution of the traditional nuclear family. The post-modern family is an exciting family form to watch as it continues to develop along the continuum of change (Roopnarine & Gielen 34-35). The American Family of the 21st Century The American family is characterized as being both modern and post-modern, according to our definitions of the family of the 21st century, and is one is which egalitarianism between the sexes reigns supreme. The employment of mothers outside of the home in Western society is a relatively new phenomenon with important ramifications in the social, economic and political realms. Accordingly, the employment women outside of the traditional private sphere has highlighted the socially constructed nature of gender role in modern Western society and has forced us to reevaluate traditional gender role expectations in America today. Until relatively recently (less than 100 years), the paid employment of women outside of the home was an anomaly in the United States, a culture which is characterized by a strong sense of patriarchy and masculine provider roles. Despite the fact that American society is patriarchal, the employment of women has been positive for the family as well as the mother/wife dyad in that the paid employment of a mother gives her more power and control in a society which prides success and the accumulation of wealth. For women who choose to work outside of the home and also raise a child, there are naturally personal concerns but women have proven that they multi-task and do both at the same time. Society has changed in an incredibly rapid amount of time and the employment of women outside of the home is not unusual anymore. This trend has thus had a variety of consequences in the personal, social and economic spheres. The result has been the economic and social liberation of women from domestic work in the latter half of the twentieth century (Davor 1993). The Arab Family of the 21st Century Unlike the American family, the Arab family in Egypt and throughout the Middle East remains staunchly conservative and the roles of women are circumscribed by cultural, social and economic factors. It is important to note that most Arab women do not work outside of the home. Islam is a dominant force in the lives of most women in the Middle East. Seeking to understand the unique roles women play within the Islamic experience, the following will explore the Arab family in the 21st century by analyzing the role that Islam plays in the lives of Arab women today. Persuasively arguing that it is patriarchal culture, and not Islam, which explains much of the sexism and gender inequality prevalent in the Muslim world today, Amina Wadud-Muhsin argues that Islam truly is a progressive religion which promotes the equality of the sexes. Culture factors which promote the inferiority of women have been misconstrued as Islamic doctrine when in fact those beliefs have nothing to do with Islam. This article speaks to the Muslim world and is addressed to both women, including Sisters in Islam, and men. Importantly, while her audience appears to be both men and women, Muslim men, particularly those from the more traditional or conservative parts of the Islamic world are sure to benefit from her insights into the Qur’an and the original meaning and interpretation of the Islamic scriptures (Moghissi 40-55). Understanding that Islam was a progressive and liberating force more than 1,400 years ago, the introduction to Qur’an and Women uses scripture to argue that before Allah, men and women are created equal and should be viewed as such. There is no superiority of the sexes according to Allah and the cultural fable that woman was created from man’s rib is shown by the author to be a fallacy. Accordingly, this erroneous cultural idea has been misperceived as being proper Islamic doctrine. Using Qur’anic verse, Wadud-Muhsin shows that Allah designed the world in pairs and men and women complement each other. Although biological differences exist between the genders, she points out that from a spiritual perspective men and women are equal. With respect to modern Qur’anic interpretation, this author emphatically asserts that passages have been taken out of context and misrepresented by Islamic scholars and jurists. Accordingly, polygamy and other pre-Islamic practices are not necessarily condoned nor encouraged by Allah. It is also important, this author argues, to understand the social and historical context under which the Qur’anic revelations occurred and keep in mind the history of pre-Islamic society almost a century and a half ago. The interdependence of men and women is a feature of the Qur’an often emphasized and persuasively argued with reference to Qur’anic scriptures which point to the equality of men and women in Islam (Moghissi 40-55). Comparative Analysis: The Economic Contract The Economic Contract can take a variety of forms – including bridewealth, brideservice, and dowry amongst other forms of exchange – and is a cornerstone of economic anthropology. Marriage is a universal phenomenon and the economic contract is found cross-culturally as well as amongst different groups around the world. Whether a marriage takes place in the United States or in Egypt, marriage is essentially an economic arrangement between two individuals or between two families/kin groups (see Hoodfar, 13-30). Marni Womack describes marriage in the United States as the sole economic contract in which the terms of the contract are not specified but rather are implied (145). This differs greatly with other cultures in which the economic underpinning of a union between a bride and groom are not only discussed but stipulated and put into practice through arranged marriage. The Economic Contract in an arranged marriage is thus explicit as opposed to implicit and invariably includes the involvement of a third party, sometimes described as a matchmaker, and most often a member of one’s kin (Womack 145-148). There are many forms of exchange when marriages are arranged with the most common being bridewealth, brideservice, and dowry. Bridewealth (also known by the controversial term “brideprice”) is the “most common form of marriage payment” (Womack 148) and involves a transfer of wealth by the husband and his family to the family of the bride-to-be. Brideservice is similar to bridewealth in that the husband compensates the family of the bride for their loss, but in this case the groom works for the bride’s family as compensation – sometimes for many years. Dowry is the last major type of marriage exchange and is the reverse of the previous two types of exchange because in this instance the bride’s family transfers goods to the bride (or to the new couple). The dowry system is most commonly found in Europe and in Asia. All of these transactions - bridewealth, brideservice, and dowry – strengthen ties between families and kin groups. Importantly, they also reinforce the economic foundation of marriage between individuals, and tribes in the Arab context (Hoodfar 1997; Womack 148, 149). The economic contract can have multiple implications for a bride and groom. While feminists decry the economic contract as a misogynist practice – admittedly the term “brideprice” sounds like the husband is “buying” the bride and that the soon-to-be wife is “for sale – the economic contract can, in fact, be positive (Bossen 1988). An economic contract can both secure the financial future of the new couple as well strengthen bonds between families and kin groups. By stipulating the economic parameters of the union at the outset, the economic contract reinforces ties between groups while at the same time providing an economic basis for the new union (Womack 149). Concluding Remarks In the United States, today’s family is evolving and the post-modern family represents an evolution of the traditional nuclear family unit. In this context, the American family is no longer restricted to the nuclear model and there are a variety of family forms out there. Accordingly, the entry of women into the paid labor force in the United States represents the most important change to the composition of the American family over the past hundred years. Comparatively speaking, in the Egyptian context, the traditional model reigns supreme and there is a fine demarcation of labor roles for men and for women. Islam is the predominate influence in the household and while gender role separation is often pronounced, a religiously-inspired conservativism in the norm in Arab families. Accordingly, women’s work is often unpaid while the traditional family model is the norm. The economic contract, although found in cultures around the world, is differently applied and is culturally-specific. The world is changing with globalization and studying families in comparative perspective is fascinating in light of all of the recent changes. WORKS CITED Bossen, Laurel. “Towards a Theory of Marriage: The Economic Anthropology of Marriage Transactions.” Ethnology 27:2 (1988): 127-144. Davor, Aaron. "Toward a Taxonomy of Gendered Sexuality." Journal of Psychology and Human Sexuality, 6.3(1993), 23-55. Hoodfar, Homa. Between Marriage and the Market: Intimate Politics and Survival in Cairo. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997. Moghissi, Haideh. Women and Islam: Social conditions, obstacles, and prospects. New York: Taylor & Francis, 2005. Roopnarine, J.L. & Gielen, U.P. Families in Global Perspective. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2005. Womack, Mari. Being Human: An Introduction to Cultural Anthropology. Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 1998. Read More