Pollution Monitoring and Control - Assignment Example

Name: Course: Tutor: Date: Роllutiоn Моnitоring аnd Соntrоl Part A a). Effects of Soil Pollutants on Human Health The term soil has varied meanings and different authors have different definitions of soil. Shayler, McBride and Harrison, 8 define soil as the thin layer covering the Earth’s surface and that consists of both organic and inorganic materials. Pollution is a term used to refer to the process of contamination of the environment with different types of wastes where the environment here means water, atmosphere and soil. Contamination of water, air and soil occur in several ways with some cases being intentional and others unintentional. Soil can be polluted superficially, on the surface, and deeply underground into the soil structure or profile. There are three different type of soil pollution namely; soil pollution from agricultural activities, soil pollution due to liquid and solid wastes from industries and contamination to the soil as a result of urban activities (Soil Pollution-Effects on Humans, Animals, Plants and Environment). Soil pollution results from application of fertilizers in farms which end up contaminating the soil with substances like heavy metals. The use of herbicides, insecticides and pesticides on farms result into infiltration of their harmful components like organophosphates and carbamates into the soil (Shayler, McBride and Harrison 6). Another cause of soil pollution is dumping of solid wastes everywhere especially in urban areas. Cutting down trees reduces the amount of surface cover thereby exposing such soils to erosion when it rains. Developments of industries such as oil producing industries cause soil pollution through spillage of harmful substances into the water bodies which are later absorbed into the soil. The harmful substances that get into the soil have got negative impacts on human health following exposure either through ingestion, inhalation or through skin contact. The health effects will only be realized if the soil contaminants have high toxicity levels, when large amounts get into contact with humans or following ingestion, when humans are exposed to them for long periods of time and repeatedly (Shayler, McBride and Harrison 14). The likelihood of health effects also depends on whether the exposed individuals are healthy or not, their age, gender, genetic factors, diet taken by such individuals and also their way of life. Soil pollutants such as lead, a heavy metal, and organophosphate, a pesticide component, have negative impacts on human health. Lead is a heavy metal that has got unique physical appearance. It is bluish-gray in color and it always exists in trifling quantities in the Earth’s crust. Human activities such as combustion of bio fuels, industrial manufacturing and quarrying generate large amounts of lead. Lead is very useful as it is largely used in the formation of equipment used as radioactive barriers and in the production of wet cells. It is present in most industrial wastes and has high chances of getting deposited in the soil when the industrial wastes are discarded in water bodies and in the fields. The main exposure path to lead in the soil is via ingestion of soil particles contaminated with lead, which is mainly common in children. Plants growing in lead contaminated soils will have deposits of lead particles on their roots, stems and leaves and humans get exposed to lead via ingestion of such plants (Shayler, McBride and Harrison 7). The effects of lead on human health are varied with the severity being more on children than it is on adults. Lead easily damages children’s nervous system and their brains leading to problems in learning, frequent headaches and problems in hearing. Adults exposed to lead poisoning experience such effects as aching in the muscles and joints, difficulties in remembering events and problems with the nervous system. Lead also affects the blood vessels making the blood flow difficult consequently resulting in high blood pressure (Soil Pollution-Effects on Humans, Animals, Plants and Environment). Lead poisoning can be detected in blood samples in cases of high levels of exposure which provides the best method of diagnosis of lead poisoning. Organophosphate is a vigorous ingredient in the pesticides used in regulating pests in many farms. This infiltrates into the soil becoming a soil pollutant where pesticides have been sprayed. Human beings have four routes of exposure to organophosphates namely; through inhalation, ingestion, contact with the skin and contact with the eyes (Shayler, McBride and Harrison 12). Two types of toxicity are observed with organophosphate poisoning with the type of toxicity occurring from first exposure to the compound being known as acute toxicity whereas those effects that result from a long period of repeated exposure is called chronic toxicity. Severe and prolonged toxicities ensuing from exposure to organophosphates lead to diverse health effects. Acute toxicity is measured by the concentration of the organophosphate required to kill half the number of human beings in a test population, normally referred to as lethal dose 50 (LD50) or (LC50). Low values of lethal dose 50 are associated with high levels of toxicity of the organophosphate. Chronic toxicity on the other hand is measured by repeated exposure of the human beings to the organophosphate. Acute exposure to organophosphate poisoning is more serious than chronic exposure (Shayler, McBride and Harrison 13). Organophosphates have adverse effects to nerve impulse transmission where they inhibit the activity of the cholinesterase, an enzyme responsible for converting acetylcholine to choline and acetic acid. Choline is required for impulse transmission at a synapse creating sensitivity. Symptoms associated with organophosphate poisoning include difficulty in speech, impaired concentration, loss of consciousness due to interruptions in impulse transmission, excessive saliva and tearing, headache, pinpoint pupils, diarrhea and respiratory depression (Soil Pollution-Effects on Humans, Animals, Plants and Environment). When a person is exposed to organophosphate pesticide repeated number of times, such individuals are likely to experience serious diseases of the nervous system like Alzheimer’s disease which is always fatal. Reducing exposure to organophosphate pesticides, those used in fruits and vegetables, can greatly be achieved by eating foods rich in organic compounds. The organic diet helps in reducing the levels of organophosphate compounds in blood (Shayler, McBride and Harrison 10). Diagnosis of organophosphate poisoning can be achieved by testing the residues in urine samples which is mainly effective in children. Organophosphates are likely to poison even the fetus while still in the mother’s womb. Following the events of spraying the pesticides on the farms, the organophosphate compounds that get into the soil have the ability to vaporize into the atmosphere creating high chances of exposure through inhalation. In this process, the inhaled particles have the potential of reaching the fetus and harming it (Soil Pollution-Effects on Humans, Animals, Plants and Environment). b). Advantages and disadvantages of epidemiology as an approach to the evaluation of the effects of environmental pollution The possibility of disease occurrence in any polluted environment can be known when a comprehensive study is done on the highly exposed persons at the site of pollution and the rate of disease occurrence estimated, a term described as epidemiology. Hens defines epidemiology as the science that addresses the frequency and distribution of disease or health problems in a population (2). It is therefore the study of patterns of disease and health status in a population. In terms of environmental pollution, it is both a field of research to enhance understanding and application of relevant knowledge to control environmental pollution. Epidemiological studies involve the use of large samples. The power of epidemiological studies therefore is not very largely dependent on the large number of population involved, but the level of accuracy of data and the type of statistical analysis used. Using epidemiology as an approach to the evaluation of effects of environmental pollution has got several benefits and has been applied by environmental scientist in managing environmental pollution (Nurminen, Nurminen and Corvalan 584). It is easy to conduct in relatively short period of time which makes it the best choice for environmental scientists. Epidemiological studies of environmental pollution make it easy to predict the levels of exposure of workers or even residents to the toxic environmental pollutants. When epidemiological data is combined with data showing the number of deaths, a more accurate estimation is achieved. In addition, epidemiological methods that do not require the application of experimental procedures are easily used to demonstrate the level of effects associated with repeated exposure to harmful environmental pollutants. Such studies also allow for the investigation of extremely large populations in order to establish exposure to an environmental pollutant and disease relations. Conducting epidemiological studies with very large populations to obtain accurate data also helps to minimize costs used in such operations. Since epidemiological studies involve the application of various research designs, the data obtained from epidemiological studies can always be used to make positive improvements in the field of research. Through epidemiologic studies, environmental factors that cause diseases are identified with the aim of providing ways of disease prevention. It helps in identifying which part of the population has the greatest risk of being affected by the environmental pollution issue so that necessary actions may be taken with immediate effect. Epidemiological studies provide the knowledge about the importance of illness caused by the various environmental pollutants which provides room for further research consequently helping in coming up with even more accurate information. Epidemiological studies help in understanding the passive and active members of the society involved in the process of environmental pollution. Again, these studies provide a clear understanding of the source of the environmental pollution. Another advantage of epidemiology is that it is related to the study of occupationally exposed workers thus important as a health study. It allows for study in setups where comparison between increased concentrations of the polluting situation and a reference group is possible. Epidemiology deals with people living in prevailing environmental condition and is therefore able to provide an insight to the problem at hand (Nurminen, Nurminen and Corvalan 585). The study also allows for the investigation of health effects resulting from combinations of substances as they occur in the environmental situation like the waste deposit sites and the polluting plants. It avoids the uncertainties and gives out results as obtained from the field. Furthermore, the study allows the evaluation of a wider range of adverse health outcomes which may be related environmental exposures thus is mainly suitable in the study of health effects that do not lead to death of the persons exposed to the environmental pollutants. Epidemiological studies also have several limitations including; the study targets a large group due to the limited sensitivity which results in the use of expensive study designs (Nurminen 16). This sometimes makes such studies difficult when the group under study is not large enough to bring the expected frequency changes. In industrial civilizations, pollution is so prevalent that it may be hard to find appropriate control populations which look like the study group in all socio-economic and environmental limitations save for the pollutant under study. The potentially harmful results of human exposures to environmental agents cannot be discovered until after a very long time following the named exposures. Most of the time, epidemiological study needs to be supported by exposures research both external and internal exposures which only add on costs, energy and the time spent on studies concerning environmental epidemiology. The data obtained from the epidemiological study may not relate with the reason for which the epidemiological study was conducted. However much the limitations of epidemiology may be, it is still ranked best as providing for understanding and how various environmental pollutants affect human health. Epidemiological studies may also be biased with some information such as relating the rates of exposure to the types of diseases or complications brought about by such exposures. Establishment and maintenance of monitoring system following epidemiological studies is extremely expensive. Without individuals to provide appropriate information during the study, there is need to look for people, locate them to areas where they can be exposed to environmental pollutants in order for quality data to be obtained. The epidemiological study does not provide any clear relationship between the distribution of exposures to environmental effects and likelihood of disease development at an individual level, i.e. epidemiological studies only deal with single parameters. It is therefore ideally impossible to arrive into a conclusion that the individuals or numbers indicated in the study result are really exposed to the named environmental pollutants. It is therefore always advised that data in epidemiological studies should just be short lived and should be used in making short term decisions alone. Additional difficulties may also be created by differences in the geographical locations from which the epidemiological data was collected whereby the environmental pollutants and exposures are only available for individual monitoring sites/natural areas. Relevant examples where epidemiological studies have been applied as an approach to the evaluation of the effects of environmental pollution include the 2009 study conducted by the Environmental Protection Ministry in 12 cases in China following a number of heavy metal pollution cases. Epidemiological study revealed 4,035 people with lead in their blood samples, and 182 people with excessive cadmium in their blood samples. In this case the epidemiological study is advantageous in providing the numbers affected by heavy metal poisoning. However, the disadvantageous point of it is where the study cannot provide the period of exposure in each and every tested individual. Part B a). Effects of Acid Rain on the Natural Environment Emission of sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere is the main origin of acid rain. Acid rain is formed when these gases dissolve in water and fall to the Earth’s surface in form of precipitation (Michaelis 8). The precipitation may fall in the form of fog, mist, rain or even snow containing highly concentrated amounts of sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxides. In another way, dry deposits containing concentrated amounts of these gases may settle on buildings, cars and even vegetation and later get dissolved when it rains. The above named gases become acidic water when they get dissolved. Although these gases exist naturally in the atmosphere especially sulphur dioxide and carbon dioxide, various natural processes and human activities add more of these chemicals to the air (Schoenbach and Rosamond 6). Decaying vegetation, industries, combustion of organic compounds or eruptions of volcanoes may release oxides of sulphur, carbon or even of nitrogen into the atmosphere. Other sources of sulphur dioxide include smelting of ore and processing of natural gas. The main sources of nitric oxides emissions are vehicles, furnaces and even boilers. Acid rain therefore forms following dissolution of these gases in any of the precipitation forms (Michaelis 5) It does not mean that acid rain only occurs in areas of high industrial activity and transportation. Since these gases get deposited in the atmosphere and due to their light weight, they are spread across wide areas by wind prior to fall in down onto the Earth’s surface as acid rain. As such, existence of high industrial activity, soil quality and the direction of wind can all contribute to the occurrence of acid rain (Michaelis 7) Acid rain therefore is a complicated environmental problem that affects the United States and many other countries around the world. Sulphur reacts with water to form sulphuric acid or sulphurous acid, carbon dioxide forms carbonic acid on reaction with water and nitric oxide forms nitric acid or nitrous acid. Water containing these compounds is acidic in nature with a pH value of between 1 and 5. When these compounds fall on the earth in the form of precipitation, they have several negative impacts on the ecosystem majorly affecting the water bodies, buildings, soil and vegetation (Schoenbach and Rosamond 49). The various effects of acid rain on ecosystems include where it affects the forest vegetation, soil, lakes, streams, rain water and buildings. According to Michaelis 6 acid rain causes total depletion of the forests as it slows down the rate of growth of trees and the entire forest vegetation. This has been witnessed in most parts of the United States where most industries are located resulting in large amounts of acid rain precursors being emitted into the atmosphere. Acid rain has resulted into death of vegetation on the Appalachia Mountains of the United States. The effects of acid rain on trees of the forest is due to a combined effect of other air pollutants, insects, disease, drought and even very cold weather in such forests (Schoenbach and Rosamond 10). To be able to harm forests the acid rain first affects the forest soils. When rain falls, it trickles through the leaves of the trees and drops to the forest floor. The soil is able to neutralize this acidity so as to create balanced pH. This is what is known as buffering capacity of the soil. The buffering capacity of soils vary from one soil type to another and the effect of acid rain is more severe in those soils with poor buffering capacity as they cannot control the soil acidity. For the forest soils to be able to neutralize soil acidity, they have to be thick enough on the surface like the soils in the Midwestern states of America like the Nebraska and Indiana that have high buffering capacities (Schoenbach and Rosamond 28). Unlikely, places like New York’s Adirondack and Catskill Mountains have thin soils with low buffering capacity and the rate at which the acid rains cause harm to the forests is very high. Soils that are alkaline in nature have high ability to neutralize acids in the acid rain than the sensitive soils of low buffering capacities. Soils with lower buffering capacities such as those in Eastern parts of Canada have their forest vegetation quickly depleted as compared to those of the western parts which are highly alkaline (Schoenbach and Rosamond 30). The large effects of acid rain on the eastern parts of Canada is also associated with the concentration of industries in the region and the presence of the easterly winds which spread the sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide and nitric oxide from the industries to most parts of the region. Research has shown that acid rain does not cause harm to forest vegetation directly when it falls on them (Michaelis 5). Instead, the acid rain dissolves the important nutrients in the soil required by the plants to grow as well as washes them away before they are taken up by plants. Acid rain also leads to deposition of substances that are toxic to the plants in the soil like Aluminum. Trees in areas that experience acid rain mostly have their leaves exposed to the acid rain anytime it rains. The acid rain on the leaves washes away nutrients that have been taken up by such plants from the soil making them highly susceptible to damage. Limestone can therefore be added to such soils to boost their buffering capacity and ability to neutralize the acids in acid rain Acid rains make the water in the streams and lakes to become acidic especially in those waters with low alkalinity, the ability to neutralize the acids in acidic rain. Since acid rain also produces high concentrations of Aluminium, the Aluminium is carried away by the surface run off into the streams and lakes and they get deposited on the lower beds of such streams and lakes. Fish and other aquatic microorganisms are sensitive to small changes in the pH of water and mineral changes and they end up dying from the effects of acid rain. In southern Norway, there are increased levels of sulphur dioxide and nitric oxide emissions into the atmosphere resulting into increased cases of acid rain. This has made the lakes and streams more acidic than those in the northern Norway and eventual death of aquatic microorganisms and fish in these waters. The rate of Norway’s fish stock has therefore reduced drastically accompanied by the loss of 18 stocks of salmon and 12 species being endangered. Most rivers do not have salmon at all due to the effects of acid rain. The effects of acid rain into water bodies can be reduced by increasing the alkalinity of the buffering capacity of such waters by adding lime in the most severely damaged rivers (Schoenbach and Rosamond 50). This gives the ecosystem a second chance to develop and survive .This method of liming has successfully been used in Norway to allow the rivers to exist again. Acid rain also affects drinking water by making it more acidic than is supposed to be. People in several homes trust the cleanliness of rain water and collect it directly from the roof tops before drinking it without any treatments. Acid rain contains the contaminants from the atmosphere with the acid content even becoming larger in countries with several industries than in countries that are less industrialized. As such the acid rain makes drinking water unsafe for drinking unless it is treated to facilitate the reduction in the acidity. Apart from the effects caused on the forest vegetation, soil, drinking water and water bodies, acid rain also causes adverse effects on buildings and cars. Acid rain contains reactive acids that react with the metals on roof tops and corroding them. The corrosive nature of the acid rain is also witnessed in cars parked in areas where the acid rains are common (Schoenbach and Rosamond 36). The reactions that occur between the acid rain and the metals on the roofs of buildings and on cars make them look rusty and ugly. The acid rain therefore destroys the aesthetic value of these cars and buildings. This is also a common phenomenon in the coastal regions of Kenya. The corrosive nature of acid rain also accounts for the visibility reduction in the eastern United States. b). Critical evaluation of the strategies by which the precursor pollutants for acid rain are regulated in the European Union and one other named Country The effects of acid rain to natural environment as described above are not pleasant and can lead to a great loss to the ecosystem. There is need therefore to deal with the issue absolutely in order to reduce occurrence of acid rain or avoid it completely where possible. The most direct and immediate point of action should be to reduce the amounts of sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide and nitric oxide emissions into the atmosphere. Since these are the main precursor pollutants of acid rain, their reduction or elimination from the atmosphere will mean the rain water will reach the Earth’s surface without dissolving them. The European Union has developed various strategies to help reduce and prevent the emission of the above named acid rain precursor pollutants into the atmosphere (Schoenbach and Rosamond 58). The European Union attempts to reduce the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, a system known as abatement. This system uses two approaches with one approach aimed at removing the carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere, a term known as sink enhancement. The other approach aimed at reducing the rate of carbon dioxide emission into the atmosphere is termed as emissions abatement. To remove the amounts of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere, the policies such as filtering the gases at the industrial levels are employed followed by solidifying such gases and disposing them at the floor of large water bodies. This approach has proved effective when conducted repeated number of times at the sites where the carbon dioxide is emitted. Despite the effectiveness of this approach in reducing the rate of gas emission into the atmosphere, it is highly costly as far as the electricity consumption rate is concerned. Sink enhancement can also be achieved by planting more trees where the trees will absorb the atmospheric carbon dioxide for use in photosynthesis (Schoenbach and Rosamond 54). This method has proved effective in the European Union in terms of reducing transmission of the potential gases. To reduce emission of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, the European Union strives to reduce energy demand and switching to wind power which does not release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. To reduce emission of sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide and nitric oxide emissions into the atmosphere, most of the European Union countries also set themselves emission reduction targets by defining the maximum level of emissions that should not be exceeded (Schoenbach and Rosamond 46). This policy has also proved effective in regulating the precursor pollutants for acid rain and it has successfully been used in the Montreal Protocol to the Vienna Convention and by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe and the European Union’s on large combustion plants. Laws governing emission of nitrogen oxide into the atmosphere have also been enacted to limit the amount emitted at 200 micrograms per m3. The European Union has also been able to conduct satellite monitoring to ensure that this is observed by all the member states (Controlling Carbon Dioxide Emission: The Tradeable Permit System). The European Union has also succeeded greatly in reducing emission of the precursor pollutants of acid rain to the atmosphere by imposing high domestic taxes to those who exceed the stated limits. The policy of increasing international taxes to those countries that engage in activities that emit excess levels of these gases has also been effective in reducing the rate of emissions into the atmosphere (Controlling Carbon Dioxide Emission: The Tradeable Permit System). Another policy applied by the European Union is that of the external offsets policy which allows for provision of financial support to activities aimed at reducing emission of these gases into the atmosphere such as tree-planting activities and provision of other forms of energy. Another policy is the use of tradable permits that allows those countries capable of keeping within the set emission targets to continue with their operations. Since the policies described above have proved effective in reducing the concentration of precursor pollutants for acid rain, they are therefore effective in controlling acid rain because without the gases in the atmosphere, minimal effects of acid rain on the forests, soils, water bodies, rain water and buildings will be experienced. The effects of acid rain are not only felt among the European countries but everywhere across the world. Each and every country has its own strategic means of dealing with the issue. Canada has developed various policies to reduce the emission of precursor pollutants of acid rain into the atmosphere. It involves the international community in implementation of its strategies with the aim of reducing emission of sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide and nitric oxides into the atmosphere. Canada has adopted the United Nations Framework convention on Climate Change, specifically the Kyoto Protocol (Controlling Carbon Dioxide Emission: The Tradeable Permit System). The Kyoto protocol also uses policies similar to those used by the European Union of setting limits/targets of emission. This policy has helped Canada limit the rate of gaseous emissions into the atmosphere over time. The policy of emission reduction has also been adopted by Japan, one of the developed countries with widespread industrialization activities. In the United States, this policy has helped California reduce the rate of emission of precursor pollutants for acid rain. Canadian government also promotes the usage of renewable energy thereby promoting energy efficiency. With reduced levels of atmospheric sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide and nitric oxides in Canada as a result of adoption of the above named strategies, acid rain has effectively been controlled in the country though not to the maximum capacities (Schoenbach and Rosamond 56). Works Cited “Controlling Carbon Dioxide Emission: The Tradeable Permit System”, United Nations Conference Trade and Development. Web 9 Apr. 2013. Hens, Luc. “Health Based Standards Epidemiology.” Environmental Regulations (2004): 1-9. Print. Michaelis, Patricia A. “Acid Rain and Its Effects on the Ecosystem”, United States Environmental Protection Agency 2.3(2002):5-8. Print. Nurminen, Makku, Nurminen Tuula and Corvalan Carlos, F. Methodologic Issues in Epidemiological Risk Assessment 9.10(1999): 585-593. Print. Nurminen, N. Linking Environmental and Health Data: Statistical and Epidemiological Issues, 6.4 (2004): 8-19. Print. Schoenbach, Victor J. and Rosamond, Wayne D. “Understanding the Fundamentals of Acid Rain Pollution: An Involving Text, 3.9(2000): 4-58. Print. Shayler, Hannah, McBride Murray and Harrison, Ellen. “Sources and Impacts of Contaminants in Soils”, Cornell Waste Management Institute 4(2009): 6-15. Print. “Soil Pollution: Effects on Humans, Animals, Plants and Environment”, Web. 9 Apr. 2013. Read More