Resistance in Medically Important Pest and its Significance on Military Preventive Medicine - Literature review Example

Resistance in Medically Important Pest and its Significance on Military Preventive Medicine Operations The Military and pest Control Literature Review World Health Organization (WHO) defines environmental health as that field of study that addresses most of the physical, chemical and biological factors external to an individual and all other related factors affecting behavioural patterns (Riberts and Tren, 2010). They state that the branch encompasses the assessment and control of these factors. Russell (2001) defines environmental health as that branch public health that deals with all issues and aspects of the natural and artificial environment that may affect human health.It is concerned majorly with the protection of the environment to benefit man. It is not to be confused with environmental protection, which seeks to protect the environment for its own sake (Russell in cit.). It encompasses all physical, chemical and biological factors around a human being, as well as the related factors that affect behaviours. He also clarifies that the discipline excludes all behaviour and practices not related to the environment and the behaviour associated to the social and cultural environment. Environmental medicine, a term that is not yet fully established, often serves as a synonym to environmental health. Social and ecological vulnerability to environmental disasters are the results of increased erosion of resilience prior and post the disaster (Harrison, 2011). Firm socio-ecological systems call for diversified systems for tolerating and combating unexpected occurrences. This is an implication that the successful handling of environmental issues demands a concerted effort in multi-level governance to enhance the ability to cope with such. Both the military, the local residents as well as the federal governments have a part to play in the successful control of environmental hazards. In this case, resilience will bring to thought the complex ability of a system to self-organize and develop for learning and adapting a capacity. The United States Army Centre for Environmental Health Research (USACEHR) seeks to develop capabilities to detect, assess and prevent health hazards from adverse environmental and psychological exposure (Black, 2004). They have facilitated and conducted several researches on the measurement, surveillance and elimination of harmful chemicals and materials. Background Among the many environmental issues tackled by the military, pest control and eradication has become one of the most important fields. This is because pests and diseases pose the second fatal threat to military activities after the enemy’s weapon (Russell 2001). This paper will mainly look at the role of the United States Military in the control of resistant pests. It will pay a close attention to the development of pest control products such as repellents, insecticides and nets, as well as the action plans taken in this direction. The final section will provide possible recommendations that would improve the military preparedness in the fight against pests and diseases. The military is aware that a single rodent carrying an infectious disease could seriously affect its preparedness. Statistics show that arthropod-borne diseases alone have been responsible for the loss of more than 15 million Man-days during the Second World War, a figure that is significantly higher than combat injuries (Dunlap 2008, 59). Typhus fever, a disease transmitted by lice, cost the Spanish Army more than 17 000 soldiers during the Renaissance era, besides incapacitating more than 30 000 French soldiers in 1528 as well as the death of millions of people during the First World War (Dunlap, 2008). According to these figures, it is clear that pest control and eradication is an extremely essential endeavour in the military. It has had a significant input in the development of vector identification tools as well as the testing of many control products. The military began getting involved in pest control later in the dawn of the 20th century, when Major Reed and his accomplices showed that mosquitoes transmitted yellow fever (Dunlap 2008). since then, a steady but slow growth of the number of entomologists in the army kept increasing, with the Army having more than 200 specialists by the end of World War 1. With the establishment of the US Air force as a separate military service, new progress in pest control was achieved. The Air Force entomologists experimented with the use of aircraft to spray pesticides on large tracts of land. Thus, Pest Management Specialists are tasked with the responsibility of ridding military camps of all pests whether insect or rodent (Buck & Sumner, 2007). The pursuit for better and more effective products is ongoing. It will be acknowledged that most of the products developed by the military specialists have had a tremendous effect in the improvement of human and environmental health. Arthropod-borne diseases of the types of Malaria, dengue and scrubs are a great threat to the human population in the united States. The disease transmitting vectors have developed resistance to certain control measures, making it more difficult to control or eliminate them (Carson, 2002). Besides the threat of causing diseases, biting arthropods such as mosquitoes, ticks, sand flies and biting midges can also cause dermatitis, allergic reactions and sleeplessness. Again, multiple stings from wasps, spiders and other insects are known to be fatal. Thus, the evaluation and exploration of the impact of these vectors and their control is an indispensable pursuit in improving environmental health. Vector-borne diseases have wrought their share of calamity on the military (Russell, 2001). For instance, Yellow Fever attacks in the Spanish-American war of 1900 compelled the inculcation of the yellow fever commission to Cuba. The commission, led by Major William Gorgas was successful in identifying the causes of the disease, as well as the implementation of programs on eliminating both the vector and the disease. The commission also succeeded in the introduction of DDT, the infamous insecticide that halted several epidemics of louse-borne typhus. The military would soon engage in an ambitious effort to control vectors and vector-borne diseases. In the years following the WW2, the military began the fight against louse-borne typhus, a bacterium whose life cycle as sometimes as long as a person’s lifespan (Riberts and Tren, 2010). It spreads to large populations especially when mass crowding is caused by social disruptions and natural disasters. With assistance from other departments, the military would eventually limit the epidemics of louse-borne diseases. Today, the USA military is prepared to deploy its pest control personnel anywhere in the world to offer humanitarian support and in its national security operations. The military has thousands of service men in more than 100 countries, some of which have high cases of arthropod-borne diseases. Case Study DDT (Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trychloroethane) was the first modern synthetic pesticide developed by the USA military in the 1940s (Dunlap 2008). It was initially very fruitful in the control of malaria, typhus and other insect-transmitted illnesses in both the military and the civilian society. In addition, it was used in homes, schools, farms and other social institutions. However, the effectiveness of DDT was short-lived, since most arthropod species soon developed resistance to the pesticide. Moreover, environmentalists began blaming the increasing toxicity of soils and ecosystems to the extensive use of DDT. The use of the pesticide was banned in 1972, based on adverse environmental effects emanating from its use (Russell 2001). A lot of research on the connection of DDT to the mentioned hazards took place since then. The results are the extensive condemning of the pesticide and a subsequent regulation on its use. For instance, the most important concern raised by the U.S and other international authorities classifies DDT as a probable carcinogenic product on human beings (Russell 2001). there are concerns over the linkage of DDT to reproductive effects. the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) enacted global restrictions on such products. The convention limited the use of DDT only in the control of malaria in countries where the disease is rampant (Riberts and Tren, 2010). The real impact of this pestcide remains a speculation, with the argument taking two sides; some argue that it has caused more harm than benefit and hence its production should be entirely banned, while the other refutes these notion, holding that the pesticide is quite essential in the fight against arthropods (Riberts and Tren, 2010). Conclusion Conclusively, we have seen the role of the military in pest control and eradication. The place of service men and specialists in this is substantial and indispensable. Thus, with the increasing threats of resistance in pests, there is a need for more intensive research on pest control measures, as well as an increased effort from all the stakeholders. The government ought to provide better training mechanisms on the military pest control personnel, as well as furnish the departments with sufficient resources for their research. The continued improvement of this department will not only benefit the military, but also the locals, the government and the world. References Black, J. (2004). Rethinking Military History. New York: McGraw Hill. Buck, F. & Sumner, D. (2007). Exotic Pests and Diseases. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Carson, R. (2002). Silent Spring. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Dunlap, T. (2008). DDT, Silent Spring and the Rise of Environmentalism: Classic Texts. Washington D.C: University of Washington Press. Harrison, J. (2011). Pesticide Drift and the Pursuit of the Environmental Justice. New York: McGraw Hill. Riberts, D., Tren, R, (2010). The Excellent Powder: DDT’s Political and Scientific History. New York: Dog Ear Publishing. Russell, E. (2001). War and Nature: Fighting Humans and Insects with chemicals from World War 1 to Silent Spring. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Read More