Environmental Issues in the Elemental Ecosystems by Chrispherson - Book Report/Review Example

WORLD URBAN ENVIROMENTAL ISSUES AND PATTERNS This essay presents a number of environmental issues in various major urban cities in the world. A number of cities in the world have been faced with different weather patterns and climatic changes, as a result creating a particular environmental change to the region which becomes distinctive from the rest. This article will present sixteen cities in the world; the distinctive features in them that make them to be different geographically and environmentally. Chapter one of the book addresses urban heat Islands in which two cities portray this type of environmental issue, they include; Vancouver which is located directly between the Fraser River and Burrard in-let, it is also protected at coastline of South-West Columbia Canada, and Chicago which is located in the United States of America (Chrispherson, 2011). Urban heat islands are characterised with higher than average temperatures in the urbanized regions as compared to the rural and suburban areas. The city buildings act as mirror maze where incoming radiations hit the buildings and then gets directly conducted into building materials resulting to increase in temperatures, human induce air pollutions which condense in the clouds causing artificial precipitations in the atmosphere. This environmental issue affects Marine whereby it causes land breezes due to changes in temperatures between land and ocean surface temperatures (Chrispherson, 2011). To mitigate the problem in Vancouver, a number of participants representing different organizations in the United States came with an update on the urban heat island pilot project which focuses on how to prevent air pollution by reducing heat produced in urban centres. A number of pilot city teams have been formed in Salt Lake City, Sacramento to develop action plans while in Chicago mitigation measures have been in place to try and eliminate any urban heat islands by using geographical pre-existing information. A conclusion was made to implement greener space within urban areas so as to increase a cooler environment. The second chapter of the book addresses heat wave as an environmental issue in Chicago and some parts of Albedo city. Chicago with a population of about 2.7 million has been losing its population due to heat waves. The heat waves are characterized by a rise in temperatures in the hemisphere and ozone regions, this waves occur when the high pressure air systems become stationery, with unusual moist ground conditions and no wind blows at same time, individuals are then faced with open skies and urban heat island effect, the heat per person is higher (heat index), as a result of these, deaths per week have risen due to the extreme weather patterns. The environmental issue presents a factor of major concern that needs to be addressed (Chrispherson, 2011). Chapter three presents issues on offshore winds an environmental issue on a number of farms in Copenhagen, a coastal city in Denmark. This city has a population of about 1.2 million with majority of the climate being oceanic. The oceanic climate is characterised by a low pressure zone with quite a number of unstable winds, dominated by Atlantic low pressure systems hence winds blowing with high magnitude. The increasing wind blows have then resulted to land and sea breezes which balance in sequence or alternatively. In Denmark, the city experiences a total of three off-shores per week. This environmental issue has beneficial consequences as the city form residents are able to enjoy cheap energy about 20% of energy is derived from wind-power. Another advantage is non obstructed views; there is also an offset of harmful atmospheric pollutants. The environmental issue is advantageous to the residents of Copenhagen farms. Chapter four of the book will present an environmental issue Hurricane Katrina, which mainly occurred in New Orleans city. Geographically the city has a population of about 343,829 people with a surface covering about 169. 42 square miles. The weather conditions in the city are mainly humid with slight sun shines in certain period of times, which gives the city a sub- tropical climate type. Hurricanes are characterised by tropical cyclones with a wind power of about 74 miles per hour which moves in counter clockwise in the north hemisphere. It also has thunderstorms which raises the oceanic climate temperatures to 820 F and atmospheric pressure becoming low. In 23-30th august 2005, the city encountered a hurricane which was named Katrina. It was measured at category five; the wind at that time was at a speed of 125 mph .There was a top increase of warmer waters and atmospheric pressures of about of 902 MB. The effects of hurricane have lasted for a long period and they have been experienced in the entire city. The flooding that occurred in the place was because New Oleans lacked the Levee systems. The effects did prompt the authorities to make or stimulate significant changes in the community into urban planning to cover the national disasters (Chrispherson, 2011). The environmental issue had the following environmental effects; 80% of the lands were flooded with water, millions of acres of wetlands were lost, 7 and 9 million oil spills and million gals were lost. These resulted into a number of impacts to the environmental conditions of the city; air pollution increased from the burning debris, a rise of waterborne diseases increased, micro organisms did suffer due to salinity levels increasing, and lastly it damaged a number of salt marshes. This environmental issue made other coastal cities and countries to revaluate their dike systems. The fifth chapter will address an environmental issue of shortage of water that occurs in Mexico City, located in Mexico State, with a population of approximately 8 million people. The weather is not conducive because it is characterised with hot summers and high temperature winters. The city is also built beside the lake on top of Tenochtitlan, which is the ancient Aztec city , and has a lower elevation on the surrounding lakes. It is a place of several water issues. There are no adequate water resources, and increase in maintenance costs of water supplies. There is also the problem of poor sanitation facilities. This has made the city authorities and local people to out-source these facilities. In the country, only 39% of its population access clean waters and with some 74% of population accessed to acidic free drinking waters. With the changes in weather, the city is faced with floods and sinking. The condition is the same in Bangladesh, which is over populated, resulting into in adequate social infrastructures and services. The issue in the city is due to the shortage of water and other infrastructures which results into many people in the city not getting enough basic infrastructures. The poor drainage systems have made water supply in some places to be dirty. This has prompted the country to get ground waters and put pumps so that piped water is available to the city residents. The water problem is compounded with business people selling water using water trucks, forming cartels. The authorities of Mexico have tried to come up with measures but to no avail; it still remains an environmental issue to the city (Chrispherson, 2011). The environmental issue of shortage of water is also characterized in Las Vegas where water shortage is seasonal. Las Vegas has a population of about 583756 people. It is located at about 2028 feet above the sea level with a surface area is about 135.82 square miles. This makes the majority of its land to have desert characteristics. It does depend on Exotic River with nearly 90% of it coming of River Colorado and Lake Mead. The Colorado River has extensive networks providing waters to other seven western states. An approximation of 325851 gallons of water is received per Acre foot which shows how shortage of water has prevailed in the city (Chrispherson, 2011). The positive issue in the city is the availability of ground water which can be dug. Hydro scarping can also be done easily. The state authorities have planned to implement programs to promote efficient living, the solution is that Southern Nevada water authorities have proposed to build a 285 pipeline that will pass groundwater and six valleys in the eastern Nevada; this will help in providing 50 million gal of water to the local residents. The sixth issue in chapter six of the book will be focusing on climate change in New York City; USA. The city has an approximate population of about 8175133 people, with a density of 27532 square miles and the surface area is about 468.9 square miles. The climatic weather conditions are that of sub tropical with humid conditions, at times experiencing hot summers with cold and damp winters. The environmental issue of climate change has the following effects: temperatures are expected to increase by 3 degrees in the year 2020 and 7.5 degrees by the year 2080 which reset to move frequent heat waves. In 2080 it is expected a 10% precipitation will occur which cause severe storms creating will major flooding. The sea level will then expect to be 12 to 13 inches of 2080 which will be endangering over 600 miles of New York City coastlines. The remedies and adaptations have been put forward to address the environmental issue including preparing for a large population today, increasing public transit options and bike lanes, making open forum communications between climate experts and other government officials, and establishing a climate change monitoring programs. Each citizen of the city has been asked to decrease greenhouse gas emissions in turn save money on oil and gas use (Chrispherson, 2011). There have been a number of activists who have to proclaim an increase in tree planting in parks. The environmental conditions in the city have exposed the city residents to a number of new hazards and a number of heightened risks .These risks are due to increase. The only solution to the problem in the city is to reduce green house gases in the atmosphere. The city with its authorities came with the NPCC (New Panel Climate Change) to identify crucial vulnerabilities and come up with adaptations strategies and a number of recommendations which will foster effective climate programs. Chapter seven will address sea levels rise which occurs in Reykjavik Iceland, the island has the total area of about 40000 square miles, the population is about approximately about 320000 with 99% of them living in urban area. The Reykjavik is the capital and largest city on the Island which is characterised with sub polar marine climate type with moderate water temperatures with ice sheets giving latitudinal locations. This environmental issue has contributed to the thermal expansions of the oceans, melting of mountain glaziers around the world and retreat of a number of polar ice sheets in Greenland. The result of these is an increase in temperatures and salinity levels. There has been increase in rapid glacial retreat which has created an average of 5.5 mm in sea levels. During the past 30 years, the visible sea ice have disappeared, it has also resulted to an increase in a number of coastal floods due to sea level rising (Chrispherson, 2011). It is expected that 0.66m sea level will rise by 2100. The positive effect is on short term, with the energy and agricultural sectors benefitting. But scientists have predicted a complete loss of glaziers and this will affect the eco systems and birds life. The rising sea levels have a number of human impacts on human populations and the surrounding natural environment. It is caused by thermal expulsions and the second is caused by increasing melting processes. The rising levels are a pure evidence to show that climate change is occurring in the city. The condition is similar to that of London where they experience flooding at River banks, with sea levels expected to rise due to current barriers. In Machair, North West coastlines of Scotland and Ireland there are substantial rise in sea levels which threatens ecosystems by damaging salts and creating erosions. The environmental issue has created a unique ecosystem of fertile grassland with high sea shell content which can support plants, insects and bad species (Chrispherson, 2011). Chapter eight will be addressing the big island environmental issue which is prevalent in Hilo city in Hawaii. The city has a population of about 175784 people who are living in surface area of 4028 square miles. It has a climate that varies with the seven regions which show distinctive features, its youngest islands is about 800000 years old. The regions have different hotspots that can be used to produce geothermal energy. Such hotspots have the following characteristics, hot spots occur under oceanic and continental crests and are anchored deep in the lower mantle, and these spots remain fixed relation to moving tectonic plates. Tectonic plates move slowly over hot spots have become beneficial in producing geothermal energy which comes from the earth’s interior. This is a renewable resource with minimal pollution; this can produce heat which can produce electricity through turning turbines (Chrispherson, 2011). The city states authorities came up with Puna geothermal venture a plant that produces about 31% of Hawaii renewable energy. Its located in a low profile which is about 24 feet high and has no emissions the plant uses the binary cycle geothermal plant in its production. The plant is well designed with a closed loop circulation system which traps the excess gases and fluids escaping into the air. The environmental issue is very useful to the city and country residents. This comes similar to geothermal energy that is produced in Makati city in Philippines .The city has a population of 510400 occupants, which gives it position 44 in the world in terms of density, which gives an approximation of 18654 people per square kilometre ;part of Metro Manila. The Makati city has the following features: it is located near Manila bay with a tropical monsoon climate where there is little temperature change with high humility with it having short dry season and long wet seasons which appear during some specific times during the years. The town produces hydroelectricity in a number of places which is produced using dry steams; the advantage is that it reduces fossil fuels and carbon emissions. The town is a small tiny settlement in South Australia. Another case is that of Innamincka city which is located in Australia which supplies 10% of Australia power. It has lasted for a period of 50-100 years; this is a result of heat bed under the fields of Innamincka. This has enabled the city to supply as little or as much electricity which can necessarily meet the residents’ demands. Case two is about Onamia which is a city in Minnesota, located at about 80000 square feet school that uses geothermal energy pumps with 1.75 million BTU for heating and 230 used for cooling. It then utilizes energy in the underground feet. The city residents are now able to replace traditional heaters with the use of hydro electricity after they have implemented them at home. The nine chapters will be addressing the environmental issue of volcanism which is prevalent at Naples in Italy. The city has a population of about 1 million people, with a density of about 21000 square miles, its area covering about 45.28 square miles, with an elevation of about 56 feet. The country is volcanically active and has been faced with a number of volcanoes. This erupted in 1994 which occurred in the mainland of Europe, but there have been a small dormant volcano which has ever since resulted to a number of other eruptions. The city has a characteristic climate which is mild and has a distinctive wet winter and some warm conditions and having dry summers (Chrispherson, 2011). The volcano has the following features: It has effusive eruptions which are at times gentle and which produces enormous volumes of Lava. Secondly it has explosive eruptions resulting to magma produced blocks that conduct and pressure builds. This feature is characterized by volcanic hazards which include pyroclastic flows and surges, Lahars, structural collapse, lave flows, tehra fall and ballistic projectiles, volcanic gases, tsunamis and volcanic lighting. Majority of the volcanoes occurring on the city is caused by magma erupting and creating an upward force which pushes rocks to melt by the process of subductions to one another. The volcano can pose a number of risks to the environment and the people but this can be solved by having some measures. The risk is to remove the heat which is caused by volcanic eruptions; this can be regulated by using reinforced structures like strength roof tops and having good protections wall to deflect lava flows. Another risk is to plan for the future. People may be fearful that volcano can erupt in future and in that case, they may not plan to build any structures. This can be solved by evaluating the risk before one can embark on building any structure. More so, it may affect people’s preparedness; are the people involved ready to face or tackle any hazards a rising from a volcano? The only remedy is to educate people on a number of volcanic hazards and having evacuation plans before the volcano erupts and cause havocs. This environment issue though, is not common occurrence and if it occurs it is fatal and risky and proper planning to evaluate the risk is needed (Chrispherson, 2011). Chapter nine of the book will address one of the fatal and dangerous environmental issues that ever occurred in the world. This is known as earthquake and tsunami. It occurred on 26th December 2004, in the offshore of west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia in the Indian Ocean. The result was the destruction of properties and it killed 230000 people in other 14 countries. But the most affected countries were Indonesia, Thailand, India and Sri Lanka. The earthquake was the largest which was recorded using Seismography, it was one of the longest duration of faulting that was observed which lasted about 8-10 minutes, the entire planet did vibrate about 1cm,. It was one of the natural disasters that lead to humanitarian conditions. The earthquake was approximated to be 160 km to the Indian Ocean; the rapture was also approximated to be about 1300km. Later, there were a number of aftershocks that happened in a number of coastal places in some other countries. The only European nation that was faced was Sweden who reported that only 543 people to have died. The experts did measure and assessed the earthquake and it was approximated to be of 9.2 magnitudes which raised the water levels to the highest points. The main cause of the earthquake and Tsunami was due to subduction which occurred under water, resulting to a rapture length of about 810 miles. It led to a raised sea beds to several meters away. It later displaced 7.2 cubic miles of water which were pushed off shores to a distance of 50-100 km to the coastal areas of a number of countries. This environmental issue prompted a number of countries and states to take future interventions measures by creating a number of Seismographic stations, and creating three deep ocean countries, and scientists being standby and would give two to three minutes warnings for emergency evacuations. Chapter ten of the book will be focussing on chemical weathering of a Karst, these occur at Burren national park. The park is considered as Karst landscape in the country Clare of Ireland. The Burren does cover 1% of the land surface of Ireland and is approximately 250 square kilometres in size. It is also located in the south corner of the Burren and is approximately 1500 hectares in size; it is a home to arctic alpine plants, Mediterranean plants, and even woodland plants growing without any shades. The geographical descriptions of Karst topography is formed in a region of chemically weathered limestones with poorly developed surface drainage and solution features that appear pitted and bumpy. The process of chemical weathering process have widened and deepened pre existing vertical joints or lines of weakness in the rock resulting in the formation of an extensive system of features separated by flat permanent like slabs (Chrispherson, 2011). Due to its rock Karstifications, the drainage in the burden is sub terrainean. This sub terranean drainage creates a network of underground rivers which are emerging occasionally from springs; the water disappears and re emerges in disappearing lakes. The environmental issue occurs in Saint Paul’s cathedral London which is made of 70000 tons of Portland stones which is made up of limestone’s from the Tithonian stage of the Jurassic period quarried on the isle of Portland Dorset. In 1980 to 1990 periods, the cathedral had lost an average of 0.045mm a year but by 1990-2000 periods, the average annual rate of St Paul’s is higher than other Non- urban sites. The states authorities have embarked on a restoration plan which took 15 years and it has costed $40million with the aim of restoring 150000 blocks of the Portland stones. Chapter eleven will be reviewing the problem of e-waste that is found in a town known as Guiyu in China. This is an example of an electronics posed challenge; a problem which results from pieces and remains of electronics found loitering everywhere. Guiyu has a population of about 150000 people with 200000 being migrant workers. The density is approximated to be about 4939 square miles with the area covering 52 square kilometres. It has an elevation of about 30 feet above sea levels with a climate that is humid subtropical, which means that there is no dry seasons and hot summers. The environmental problem of the city is e –wastes, which are waste materials that are generated from electronics such as phones, printers and appliances (Chrispherson, 2011). The town is the home of 5500 businesses that deals with processing discarded electronics which are known as e- wastes. It is one of the largest electronic waste’s sites and recipient of wastes. The place has informal processing centres of the electronics. A number of truckloads dump everyday wastes; piles of electronics, creating an electronic graveyard. A number of health problems come from lead poisoning and cases of miscarriages. Environmentally, the soils have been polluted with chemicals and other elements and Lianfiang River is piled up with huge junks of plastic wastes (Chrispherson, 2011). According to a local website in the region it is estimated that electronics of about 1.5 million pounds are being dismantled which include used or old electronics, majority being junked computers, cell phones and other devices within one year. It is beneficial for the town as it generates about $75 million per year from the wastes. But the problem is that the wastes are causing a lot of health and environmentally related problems to the city residents. This has prompted authorities to look for sustainable solution; which is to advice countries and private sectors to invest heavily in modern recycling facilities to process the e-waste at the cleanest way possible. It is also the responsibility of individuals to buy electronics from well established firms who have well established ways of recycling their old and used products, the consumer should be accountable for the electronic in use, and look for better ways of recycling wastes (Chrispherson, 2011). In conclusion a number of cities in the world have been faced with a number of environmental issues which have changed the weather patterns. The environmental issues are caused by changes in natural weather patterns and others are man-made or artificial, as result of a number of human activities which can be intentional or it may by chance. Some of the environmental issues in the cities, towns or countries have become a beneficial factor to the residents who use them as resources to generate money. Other environmental issues have caused changes in weather patterns, killed majority of people and even not sparing properties where millions are destroyed. Some of the cities are faced with the same environmental issues. The remedy of search environmental issues depends on the concerned authorities, the residents of the particular city or locality. Reference Chrispherson, R. (2011). Elemental Ecosystems, California: Pearson College Division. Read More