Environmental Issues To International Security - Research Paper Example

Environmental Issues To International Security Abstract The paper discusses the several environmental issues which are being considered by environmentalist and governments as threats to international environmental security. The four primary issues are detailed in the paper, namely the the terrestrial issues including deforestation and desertification, water issues such as ocean pollution, air issues such as ozone depletion and the Greenhouse Effect, and finally other issues such as nuclear warheads, invasive species and natural disasters. A systematic assessment of the issues of environmental security is rendered and a few remedial measures are proposed at the end of the paper. TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction…………………………………………………………4 UN and Its Role In Environmental Security………………………5 European Union…………………………………………………….7 Environmental Organizations……………………………………...7 The Kyoto Protocol…………………………………………………7 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change……8 Climate Stress And Change………………………………………...8 Pollution And Persistent Pollutants ……………………………….10 Deforestation And Desertification………………………………….11 Invasive Species……………………………………………………...12 Military Security Implications……………………………………...12 Nuclear Issues………………………………………………………..13 The Japan Earthquake……………………………………………...13 Conclusion……………………………………………………………14 References……………………………………………………………17 Introduction Environmental security is a broad term which does not have a universally acknowledged definition. There are at least four major definition of the term environmental security. The first definition defines environmental security from the standpoint of how one can protect the resources which are available in a particular area. From the perspective of natural resources and ecosystem, the natural resource should be free of contamination, depletion, pollution or other forms of deprivations which are external in nature. The second definition of the term is related to the onus that the security communities of nations have in implementing the standardized environmental norms for its governmental and military operations. There are certain threats such as terrorism and war, which lead to the increase of weapons of mass destruction. Although these can potentially harm the environment greatly, it pales in front of natural disasters, which can have a detrimental effect on environmental security. The Greenhouse Gas proliferation, the destructiveness of Hurricane Katrina, the devastating tsunami which ravaged islands in the Indian Ocean are just a few examples of the effect natural disasters can have on the environment. The third environmental security definition concerns the dynamics between manmade stresses which are exerted on the environment and the eventual conflict these stress causes between the states and the individuals. This generally pertains to the governmental interventions with neighboring states in order to prevent the spread of environmental pollutants. Finally the fourth definition of environmental security concerns the amalgamation of the three aforementioned definitions of environmental security into one combined concept which can integrate the essence of environmental security perfectly. Therefore, environmental security is the term which takes in to account the military and governmental threats to environmental protection, the quality of environmental protection policies implemented by the country, and the effective use of resources and collaboration with other states in order to safeguard the environment. UN and Its Role In Environmental Security The United Nations plays a pivotal role in checking international security threats. Since the UN is the apex body which holds a significant amount of influence on the decision making process of all the major powers in the world today, the role of the United Nations in curbing the effects of environmental degradation is immense. There are a number of issues pertaining to international security which can be considered by the UN, especially in the areas of population growth, declining water tables around continents, global change on climactic patterns and the prevailing laws governing environmental policymaking. A group of the UN called the United Nations Foundation has formed which deals with challenges of climate change, terrorism threats to the environment and water shortages globally, among others. One of the key issues for the UN is identifying environmental issues from other types of problems such as world health and development issues. According to Smith et al, environmental causes would be responsible for 25% of all deaths worldwide (Smith et. al., 1999). The World Health Organization has estimated that the number of deaths due to global warming would reach 300,000 by the year 2030. Although there’s been an enormous advance in science in the last decade or so especially in the field of medical science, as regards environment, technology has made very little progress. One of the important debates at the moment is whether climate change has a strong effect on hurricanes, global cooling or global warming. As regards the new concepts in security, there are certain organizations like NATO, EU, and OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) which have taken the issue of ecological security seriously. NATO's Security through Science is a forum which is mainly concerned with the environmental issues between nations and the tension which is created between countries due to environmental problems. OECD is yet another body which has 30 of the most prosperous nations around the world. One of the primary subjects which OECD deals with is developing environmental treaties. UNEP (United Nations Environmental Programme) is the arm of the UN which has the objective to be the conscience of the world’s environmental issues and concerns. The UNEP is headquartered in Kenya. One of the famous conferences called the Rio Conference in 1992 and the Kyoto Protocol in 1997 was hosted by UNEP in collaboration with the World Bank. The Chronicle of Environmental Science and Environmental Security are two conferences are considered as trendsetting. The UN is also greatly concerned with the rising role of military operations and their impact on the environment. Although some of the major issues to have hit the military organizations worldwide has been the issue of Cold War during the 1980’s and the more recent GWOT or Global War On Terrorism, there has been a number of evidences in recent years which point out that environmental concerns and issues are now being regarded as an environmental security issue by the military. In fact, according to Myers (1996), the degradation of the environment sometimes causes the civilians of a country to back the guerillas or terrorists, as in case of Philippines and Abu Sayeef. Although connecting the military to environmental issues is debatable, environmental degradation may cause the rise in terrorism in some areas, as evidenced in Philippines. The concepts of ecological and environmental security are beginning to come to the forefront of global politics. A number of critics have however pointed out the vagueness of such concepts since they are not clearly defined. Some also believe that politicians often use such concepts for their personal gains (Barnett 2001; Dalby 2002). In the curriculum of higher education, the concepts of environmental security are referred to as ‘Environmental Politics’ or Environmental Global Politics’ (Chasek et. al. 2006).  Some of the issues covered by these topics are acid rain, desertification, deforestation, global warming, ozone depletion and eco-violence. Regarding the concern of having a proper definition for environmental security, the World Federation of United Nations Association has defined it as ‘environmental viability for life support’. Moreover, there are three major sub elements which are mentioned below: Repairing and preventing the damage to the environment done by the military Responding to conflicts which arise due to environmental issues Safeguarding the moral values that the environment integrates. European Union The European Union is an organization which has been involved in issues such as carbon dioxide emissions, the excessive toxic wastes and acid rain. The European Union has also partnered with the groups like the Institute for Environmental Security, which predominantly focuses on the new subject of ecological security. The EU is considered to have the highest standards of environmental security and protection in the world. The environmental standards now integrated in the EU’s environmental safeguard policies have taken more than a decade to frame. Some of the key issues the EU is tackling today in mainland Europe include reserving biodiversity, preventing climate change, alleviating health problems arising out of pollution and using natural resources with more environmental responsibility. The EU also strives to bring in enterprise and innovation in its environmental security policies. Environmental Organizations Environmental security is almost always concerned with environmental threats which are on a long term basis. According to Anthony Downs (1972), environmental issues tend to engage people’s issue attention span. Some environmental issues are indirect while some others are direct in nature. As per Article 15 of the Rio Declaration, one cannot postpone remedial measures or preventive measures against a tangible environmental threat, because full scientific certainty is not achieved. Moreover, a single country cannot completely repair an environmental damage, since environment is not as politically demarcated as national boundaries are. There needs to be an organization like a World Environment Organization, which is quite similar to the WTO. This organization would be able to coordinate several types of soft laws. A global environmental organization would also be successful in integrating an environmental justice court system (Schoenbaum, 2006). The Kyoto Protocol The Kyoto Protocol was framed with the objective of warding off the effects of global warming. It is a protocol which is associated with the UNFCCC or the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is essentially a treaty which attempts to stabilize the effects of greenhouse gas which is steadily increasing in the Earth’s atmosphere. The Kyoto Protocol has a number of regulations which would prevent the continuation of anthropogenic influence on the global climate system. There are several flexible mechanisms which the Kyoto Protocol integrates. Some of the important mechanisms include CDM or clean development mechanism, emissions trading and persuading the Annex I member countries to conform to the emission limitations of their GHG. Kyoto Climate Change Conference was a monumental step taken by the global community for checking the harmful effects of environmental degradation. The agreement put forward by the Kyoto Protocol made all the participating countries to be bound by the agreement’s terms. The most important terms of the agreement were reducing the greenhouse emissions by 5.2% in 22 years (From 1990 to 2012). The Kyoto Protocol has been partly successful in meeting its objectives and the protocol expires by 2012. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The UNFCCC is the most important environmental endeavor taken by the United Nations till date. The convention was created in the wake of the rising global concerns about environmental security. The treaty was incepted in 1992 at the UNCED or United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. It’s informally referred to as the Earth Summit. The signatures were opened in 1992 and the framework was provided by the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee. By the beginning of 2010, the UNFCCC had 192 member countries. One of the biggest challenges for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change was to create inventories for greenhouse gas removals and emissions. The Kyoto Protocol’s Annex I countries requires submitting updated inventories regularly. Climate Stress And Change Climate change is one of the major environmental threats which are impacting the world today. The predictions about weather patterns is now easier to make, however making correct predictions about the climatic changes is an arduous job. The climate system of the Earth is a very intricate system, which is not completely understood by science today. There has been several data about the planet’s climate history such as the global warming during the Middle Ages, but most of the data is unsubstantiated. There are two reasons for the Earth’s climate changes; one of them is man made causes while the other is natural causes. Global warming or ‘Anthropogenic Climate Change’ is actually regarded by the scientific community as man made climate change, possibly due to a hole in the Earth’s ozone layer. It’s now proved that there is a steady decline taking place in the earth’s ozone layer. The polar ice caps have holes in the ozone layer. This hole becomes extremely large from September to December every year. Since UV light of the sun is filtered by the ozone layer, the absence of ozone layer causes the UV light to enter which increases the chances of cancer among people. UV rays also results in the death of plankton and crop failures. In the year 1987, more than forty countries signed the Montreal Protocol. The protocol compels nations to reduce the production of chlorofluorocarbon emissions, which eventually causes depletion of the ozone layer. The Kyoto Protocol is another milestone in environmental security and emphasizes on the Greenhouse Effect which is steadily increasing the temperature of our planet. It is believed that global warming can in fact be stabilized by 2100 (McElroy, 2002) some of the important causes of global warming include the vehicular pollution and industrial pollution. The gases which are linked with global warming are namely carbon dioxide and methane. One of the prime ramifications of global warming, besides rising the temperature of the Earth, is the rising sea levels. It is believed that every one hundred years, the sea level will be rising four to six inches. This would in fact cause a number of important coastal cities of the world to get submerged in water.  In recent years, there has been a lot of controversy regarding the loss of arctic ice. Since 1977, scientists’ throughout the world has been measurements of the earth’s climatic patterns through satellites. It was observed that the ice loss rate in the Arctic region has increased exponentially in the last few years. The northeast passage in Russia as well as the northwest passage in Canada has now become navigable, which was earlier always covered with ice.   If this rate of ice melting in the Arctic region continues for a few more decades, scientists speculate that the polar ice caps in the Arctic region will melt away. It’s estimated by that the year 2050; the ice cap will completely melt in the Arctic (Gore, 2006). Besides the ice sheet of Greenland, the gigantic Petermann Glacier has also developed a large crack. If the iceberg in Greenland melts away completely, the ocean levels throughout the world will rise by as much as 24 feet (Houghton et. al. 2001).  This would be devastating for the coastal cities of New York and Los Angeles, which would be engulfed by the ocean.  Pollution And Persistent Pollutants Pollution control is a prime facet of the environmental security. Pollution can be in the form of air pollution, water pollution, radiation, thermal noise, invasive species, soil degradation or light pollution. There has been huge progress made in curbing issues such as smog and acid rain. However, a number of other issues are still unresolved. Any factor which causes pollution has the potential of degrading the environment. A pollution threat however is those pollutants which are persistent. Therefore, a persistent pollutant has the ability to travel around the world through processes such as deposition and evaporation, and finally contaminating soil and human food stuff (Hough, 2004).  About twelve chemicals have been classified as persistent pollutants, some of which include PCB’s, herbicides and a number of pesticides. There are different types of pesticides which are poisonous to food stuff. Although they are effective in controlling the pests which damage food crops, they carry a great risk. DDT is a pesticide which was banned in 1972. The ban of DDT as well as the implementation of the Endangered Species Act in the US has helped in the comeback of a number of animal species in the continent, especially the bald eagle.   However, under the ban, a number of other countries did suffer, since the cases of malaria increased and in numerous countries where the ban was not implemented, mosquitoes became resistant to DDT. PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) are other substances which the US banned in 1979. PCB was earlier used in PVC fixtures, capacitors and transformers. PVC’s are materials which are dangerous since they do not degrade easily; moreover they become toxic once they are oxidized. Earlier, PCB was dumped in the lakes, rivers and landfills. Many of the Great Lakes of the US have been dumped with PCB’s hence the water there has been contaminated. As a consequence, fishing in those lakes are prohibited. Deforestation And Desertification  Deforestation is essentially the conversion of all those areas covered by forests into agricultural, housing or pasture or industrial lands. Since the beginning of the 19th century, deforestation is taking place at a brisk rate (Williams, 2003).  There are two primary concerns with deforestation, first of all, the increase in the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. It is stated in the Kyoto Protocol that the countries which emit excessive sulfur dioxide but have planted several trees for absorbing carbon dioxide, would be getting Carbon Credits. Secondly, the other main effect of deforestation is the reduction of bio diversity. With the loss of natural habitat for animal and plant species, the interdependence of food chain which exists in the natural world will go haywire. This would eventually harm the biomass and as we are experiencing today, will result in the extinction of a number of plant and animal species. Deforestation can occur indirectly or deliberately. However, in almost all cases, the causes of deforestation are man made. Acid rain is indirect causes of deforestation while the slash and burn activity practiced by a number of regions of the world is a direct cause of deforestation. The rainforests of the world has decreased almost 50 % and the only major rain forest remaining is the Amazonian rain forests, which are sometimes referred to as the lungs of the Earth. Desertification is yet another dangerous environmental factor. Desertification leads to the expansion of deserts, which are basically wastelands which have no commercial or ecological value. In Africa, desertification is clearly evidenced by the rapid expansion of the Kalahari and the Sahara deserts. Sand dunes can even encroach upon the human habitats. In places such as Afghanistan, China and India, the effect of desertification is obvious. In Africa, the condition is serious since almost 50 million people are displaced from their home every ten years by the action of desertification (Dabelko, 2009).  Some events associated with desertification include erosion of soil, sand storms, drought, and Salinisation (Batterbury & Warren 2001).  If a land is lost through desertification, the land is lost for good (Hough, 2004). Invasive Species The introduction of invasive and foreign species into a land can be destructive to the whole ecological balance of the area. An invasive species can be indigenous, but the most harmful invasive species of plants and animals are generally non indigenous in nature. Besides creating a environmental imbalance, invasive species can often harm agricultural lands, timber and also taint the tourism industry of a place.   One prime example is the introduction of the Japanese Kudzu plant. This plant has had a detrimental effect on the plant life in the southeastern states of the US, since it has taken over the indigenous plants and trees of the area. Military Security Implications Military threats to the environment are real, although governments of many nations try to conceal the facts. There has been new terms coined by environmentalists, some of them include the term ‘Eco Violence’ and ‘Resource Wars’. These terms are more often than not associated with the present military practices which sometimes harm the environment excessively. The ecological threats posed by the military are deemed as threat multipliers, since environmental problems often aggravate frustration among the people, thereby causing rebellion and extremism. Some of the important skirmishes which were fought in recent years, which are a direct result of environmental degradation include the 1967 Jordan River Dispute and the Arab-Israeli Six-Day War, the Cod Wars of 1972 between Iceland and the U.K., the Nile Dispute of 1997, Niger Delta Guerrilla Conflict of 2006 and the Global Oil Wars which have been predicted by Klare (2002). Its only when the countries realize the importance of these threats to internal security, is when substantial steps are taken by the respective governments to remedy the situation (Mathews, 1989; Rogers, 2000). It’s also been argued that no country would include environmental security as a problem of national security. Nuclear Issues The International Atomic Energy Agency has reported that between the years 1993 and 2009, there were almost 2000 cases of nuclear trafficking incidents. Some of them were illicit nuclear disposal and disposal of unknown nuclear material. In 2009, 109 nations took part in the nuclear reporting program. Some of the countries included Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan and Tajikistan. These nations are trying their utmost to reduce the nuclear waste threats especially the waste left over from the Soviet era of the 1980’s. More than 800 million tonnes of toxic and radioactive waste are deposited in landfills in depots which are vulnerable. Such deposition threatens the environment and thereby aggravates the threat of the ‘Dirty Bomb’. The Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START) was signed by the two nuclear super powers, Russia and the USA. This would promote the reduction of nuclear weapons which the two countries produce. Another recent effort towards environmental security has been the Global Zero initiative. The motive of the forum is to wipe out nuclear weapons within the next two decades. The UN Security Council has passed resolutions which will persuade nations to disarm nuclear weapons, as per the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty. Furthermore, a number of cutting edge technologies are being used for monitoring, detecting and cleaning up weapons of mass destruction. A NASA project has also introduced rugged robots called ‘Spiderbots’, which can easily be placed in hazardous areas for monitoring the environmental threats they pose. The nuclear threat is very critical since a nuclear bomb can irreparably devastate the environment. The Japan Earthquake The Japan Earthquake or the Tohoku Earthquake, measuring magnitude 9.0, devastated parts of Japan’s east coast. The earthquake occurred on March 11, 2011, and was a consequence of the destructive 33 feet tsunami waves which struck the eastern coast of Japan. Almost 10, 000 people perished in the earthquake and the pollution created by this natural disaster of huge proportion, will have a major detrimental impact on the Earth’s atmosphere for years. One of the grave concerns by environmentalists worldwide has been the possibility of nuclear fallout, since there are a few major nuclear facilities which were damaged by the earthquake. Nuclear malfunction can cause irreparable damage to the environment and this is one of the reasons why the UN has called an emergency meeting. Some experts have suggested that the Japan tsunami was caused by global warming. Hence the seriousness of global warming and the threats which events such as tsunamis and earthquakes can cause to international environmental security is now clearly being witnessed by the global community. Conclusion Environmental security is one of the primary issues which all countries of the world are sitting up and taking notice of. Some of the most common fixes for environmental threats are conventions, treaties and agreements. Although treaties and conventions have been able to curb the environmental threats, it’s still not enough for fixing the threats completely. This is why fixes of the technological kind is required. Technological fixes use the most advanced set of technologies to detect, monitor and in many cases, repair the damage to the environment. A new field of study is getting popular and is called Geo Engineering. Geo Engineering has one primary motive, which is to use huge pipes to draw water from the depths of the ocean and bring the nutrient rich water to the surface. Such an action would promote algae formation on the surface waters of the ocean, and since algae absorbs carbon dioxide, the Greenhouse Effect can be reduced significantly. An alternative fix is the application of iron fertilization. Iron fertilization also helps to curb the Greenhouse Effect. Another method is concerned with the atmosphere. Tiny lenses can be installed in space, which would bend the harmful UV rays of the sun away from the Earth. Additionally, by injecting sulfur artificially into the atmosphere, the effect of global warming can be alleviated (Felton, 2003). There are proponents who prefer mitigation policies to environmental fixes of the political and technological nature. Some examples of mitigation include the use of alternative sources of power (Fink, 1986). Irrespective of which method is used for checking environmental degradation and fortifying environmental security on a worldwide level, the area of environmental security can only benefit if actions are taken sooner, rather than being taken later. The security policies of today should never rule out the chances of environmental cooperation. Additionally, the importance of building institutions fro promoting stronger governments should be considered. Furthermore, Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA’s) should be promoted. Simultaneously, it is vital to assess the environmental issues which threaten environmental security. Environmental assessments and identification of possible alternatives which can be adopted as long-term environmental security strategies is needed as well. For reducing the occurrences of environmental degradation, it’s essential that the community based efforts are encouraged. Such community based efforts require to be financed by NGO’s and international institutions. Another important facet which can ensure environmental security is the establishment of civic capacity in all countries of the world. Capacity building has a number of benefits; one of them is being able to create a common reference frame for tackling environmental issues. Moreover, capacity building also helps in understanding governmental procedures and rules. Therefore, the involvement of the public in the decision making process of the environment is vital. Individuals, families, communities and governments need to realize the connection that exists between national security and environmental degradation. The human alienation from one’s environment is what has indirectly caused this environmental crisis. The growing environmental awareness among nations and the reduced marginalization of issues pertaining to the environment from the governmental budget and legal agenda; is making a considerable difference. The governments are realizing that preserving the economic success and political stability can only come about if the environmental security issues are included in the agenda. Environmental security is hence a vital conceptual tool, which helps the government to establish political will, and it is this political will which garners international environmental solutions that are efficacious. This is why environmental threats are now being regarded as a crucial consideration for formulating foreign policy and national security initiatives. References Barnett, J. (2001). The Meaning Of Environmental Security. London: Zed Books. Batterbury, S. & Warren, A. (2001). "Desertification." Pp. 3526-3529 in N. Smelser & P Chasek, P., Brown, J. & Downie, L. (2006). Global environmental politics. Boulder, CO: Westview Dabelko, G. (2009). "Environment and Energy." Pp. 65-82 in N. Arnas (ed.) Fighting chance: Global trends and shocks in the national security environment. Washington DC: NDU Press. Dalby, S. (2002). Environmental security. Minneapolis: Univ. of MN Press. Downs, A. (1972). "Up and down with ecology: The issue-attention cycle." Public Interest 28: 38-50. 23-28. Felton, B. (2003). What were they thinking: Really bad ideas throughout history. NY: Globe Pequot Fink, S. (1986). Crisis management: Planning for the inevitable. NY: Amacom Books Gore, A. (2006). 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