Water Quality Manganment - Coursework Example

Water Quality Management Introduction The protection of environment has been an issue that is discussed extensively within the international community the last 5 years especially under the influence of severe climate changes observed around the world. In this context, it has been found that pollution of all types has caused many changes in climate in all regions (i.e. both in developed and in developing countries). It should be also noticed that pollution can have many forms; however the most common form is that of ‘air pollution’ developed through the gas emissions. On the other hand, it has been found by Chiotti et al. (2002, 235) that ‘emissions of air pollutants also contribute to a suite of atmospheric issues, including stratospheric ozone depletion, acid deposition, ground-level ozone, particulate matter, and hazardous airborne pollutants’. Current paper examines the role of water industry in the environmental pollution. Towards this direction, the quantity (approximately) of carbon dioxide released by the plants and the distribution units of the water industry will be also examined. Appropriate measures of limitations of these emissions are also proposed. More specifically, the possibility of introducing a system of carbon accounting in the water industry is examined (after the examination of existing carbon offsets in the water industry) taking into account that proposed plans for the limitation of gas emissions could be only applicable if all the conditions of a particular case are being carefully examined in advance. Otherwise, it is very likely that the relevant efforts will be unsuccessful. 2. Climate change and gas emissions The climate change that is currently observed around the world should be regarded as closely related with gas emissions. In fact, water industry ‘contributes’ to the development of environmental pollution through the activities that are taking place within the industry on a daily basis. The plants that operate in this industry have also a major role in the development of this problem. In order to understand the role of water industry in the development of environmental pollution globally, we should examine primarily the issue of greenhouse gases (which are also related with the water industry as it will be proved throughout this paper). At a first level, the procedure of creation of greenhouse gases should be explained. In accordance with an explanation given by EIA (2004) ‘many chemical compounds found in the Earth’s atmosphere act as “greenhouse gases;” These gases allow sunlight to enter the atmosphere freely; when sunlight strikes the Earth’s surface, some of it is reflected back towards space as infrared radiation (heat); greenhouse gases absorb this infrared radiation and trap the heat in the atmosphere; some of gases occur in nature (water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide), while others are exclusively human-made (like gases used for aerosols)’. In accordance with the above water industry has to face the dilemma whether the development of its activities will be formulated under the influence of political leaders in a specific region or whether this development should delay in order for other issues to be primarily resolved. Despite the existence of many proposals regarding the limitation of gas emissions, the problem still remains. The lack of sufficient funds for the appropriate restructuring of firms (in terms of the use of strategies and mechanisms that decrease the amount of gases released through the daily corporate activities) operating in the industry is considered to be the main reason for the increase of environmental pollution globally. On the other hand, the level of gas emissions globally has been extensively examined in the literature and the empirical research. In this context, it has been found that ‘estimates of future emissions and removals depend in part on assumptions about changes in underlying human activities; the Fourth U.S. Climate Action Report concluded, in assessing current trends, that carbon dioxide emissions increased by 20 percent from 1990-2004, while methane and nitrous oxide emissions decreased by 10 percent and 2 percent, respectively’ (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2007). Because of the above, the need for an appropriate initiative towards the protection of environment from the gas emissions is intensive. Regarding this issue, it has been noticed that ‘the 1997 Kyoto Protocol on Climate Change has the potential to create the first truly global demonstration of the power of environmental markets to deliver improved environmental results by providing incentives for countries, companies, and communities to reduce emissions of the greenhouse gases that contribute to global climate change’(Petsonk, 1999, 185). However, because Kyoto Protocol has not been verified by all countries within the international community, its application has not been completed yet successfully. Towards the same direction, Chiotti et al. (2002, 237) supported that ‘while the Kyoto Protocol is an important first step towards achieving noticeable reductions, further decreases will be necessary in the future, requiring the participation of an even greater number of countries, if stabilisation is ever to be attained’. An issue that should be take into consideration is the fact that ‘in recent years, atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide have been rising at a rate of about 0.5 percent per year; world carbon dioxide emissions are projected to rise from 26.9 billion metric tons in 2004 to 33.9 billion metric tons in 2015 and 42.9 billion metric tons in 2030’ (Energy Information Administration, 2007). Moreover, among the gas emissions that cause environmental pollution, the most important is carbon dioxide from fossil fuel combustion which has been estimated to represent the 82% of the total amount of gas emissions released globally (see Figure 1 below). Figure 1 – Anthropogenic Greenhouse Gas Emissions, 2001 (source: EIA, 2004) Generally, it could be stated that gas emissions (being increased continuously) have a primary role in the pollution of the environment. This is a fact that cannot be doubted. More specifically, as it can be observed in Figure 2 below carbon dioxide emissions are expected to reach by 2030 the 7,950 million metric tons instead of current level of 5,945, a significant increase if considering the measures that are taken globally regarding the limitation of gas emission in all human activities. Figure 2 - U.S. Carbon Dioxide Emissions by sector and fuel for 2005 actual and 2030 projected, million metric tons (source: Energy Information Administration, 2007) 3. Water industry and gas emissions Gas emissions have been related with all industrial sectors. In fact, a research published in National Statistics Online (2007) reveals that ‘greenhouse gas emissions from the electricity, gas and water supply companies fell 11.9 per cent from 218.6 million tonnes in 1990 to 192.6 million tonnes in 2003 as electricity generators increased their use of natural gas as opposed to coal’ (National Statistics Online, 2007). However, these figures should be considered as referring to a specific region; if referring to the international community, these figures should not taken into account because they are related to specific human activities within a particular territory (this of UK). In fact, a report published by Alberta government (2000) reveals that ‘over the last century, modern industry and lifestyles have rapidly increased greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations in the Earths atmosphere; the majority of scientists studying this issue believe that these increasing concentrations are contributing to global warming’ (Alberta government, 2000). In the case specifically of water industry, firms that operate in this industry can have a key role in the limitation of environmental pollution but only if taking the appropriate measures in advance. The above assumption is of particular importance if we consider that many parts of the water industry (treatment plants, distribution systems and pumping operations) can have their role in the development of the problem. Figure 3 – Greenhouse gas emissions, UK, 1990-2003 (source: National Statistics Online) A common method for reducing the CO2 released to the atmosphere is to proceed to ‘Carbon offsetting’ which has been characterized as ‘the act of mitigating ("offsetting") greenhouse gas emissions; a well-known example is the purchasing of offsets to compensate for the greenhouse gas emissions from personal air travel; the idea of paying for emission reductions elsewhere instead of reducing ones own emissions is known from the closely related concept of emissions trading; a wide variety of offset methods are in use — while tree planting was initially a mainstay of carbon offsetting, renewable energy, energy conservation and methane capture offsets have now become increasingly popular’ (Wikipedia, 2007). Regarding this issue, it is suggested in a report published by ECO Business Links (2007) that ‘carbon offsets enable individuals and businesses to reduce the CO2 emissions they are responsible for by offsetting, reducing or displacing the CO2 in another place, typically where it is more economical to do so; carbon offsets typically include renewable energy, energy efficiency and reforestation projects’ (ECO Business Links, 2007). Carbon offsets would be a valuable method for the limitation of greenhouse emissions released daily. On the other hand, a significant differentiation is presented among the European countries and the USA (see Figure 4, below); in fact this is a conflict lasting for years. Figure 4 – World Carbon Dioxide Emissions by Regions 2001-2025 (source: EIA, 2004) 4. Review of the pressures to identify and adopt renewable energy sources with low greenhouse gas emissions The last years, the pressures towards the introduction and the use of renewable energy sources with low greenhouse gas emissions have become intensive. Towards this direction, it is suggested by Ferrey (2003, 4) that ‘what the renewable energy projects do have in common is that they do not utilize combustion of fossil fuels to produce electricity; they either create mechanical shaft power from the movement of wind or water, tap naturally produced geothermal energy sources or employ solar energy to induce direct current on a chemical surface’. Because of their ‘attributes’ as described above, renewable energy sources are particularly popular today. However, this finding could not lead to the assumption that appropriate plans for the use of this technology exist. In most cases, the use of this type of energy resources is not adequately and appropriately supported; limited production of energy is the most common result of this phenomenon. On the other hand, it is noticed by Eizen (2005, 298) that ‘there are numerous reasons to promote environmentally friendly generation in a restructuring environment; it would reduce air pollution; generating electricity from renewable resources would improve our profile of greenhouse gas emissions’. Despite the above advantages, it seems that efforts for the use of renewable energy resources are limited within the international community. However, it has been found by Eisen (2005, 297) that ‘at the regional level, promising initiatives are already underway to support market-friendly mechanisms such as renewable portfolio standards; still, there is a long way to go before the states mandates and the new regional markets are effectively harmonized’. The development of appropriate channels of cooperation among countries regarding the particular issue is necessary. Otherwise it is not possible for such an effort to be successfully completed. 5. Conclusion - Benefits of a low emissions future The limitation of gas emissions globally would have a significant impact on the improvement of air quality. The balance in the climate could be also a positive effect of this effort; even if achieved gradually. Towards this direction, it is noticed by Chiotti et al. (2002, 239) that ‘presently, due to technological limitations, the most cost-effective method of reducing energy generated greenhouse gas emissions is through actions to reduce fossil fuel combustion; this includes energy conservation, energy efficiency, and fuel switching; reductions in emissions from fossil fuel combustion will also function to reduce a wide range of pollutants’. In other words, not all plans related with the limitation of gas emissions globally are feasible while cost is a significant factor towards the realization of these plans around the world. For this reason, energy resources that could provide energy with low cost are always on demand. As an example, Rogers (2001, 85) refers to coal noticing that ‘generating electricity from coal is also significantly more affordable than the traditional alternatives: natural gas, nuclear power, and hydropower; on average, coal-based generation is about half the cost of natural-gas-based generation’. From another point of view, Chiotti et al. (2002, 237) suggested that ‘responses to climate change include policies and autonomous actions that can be classified as either mitigation or adaptation; mitigation refers to measures designed to reduce human-induced emissions and, consequently, atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases, whereas adaptation refers to measures designed to reduce impacts from and vulnerability to climate change’. In the case of water industry the application of the above principles could be feasible only if appropriate plans of action were designed. In fact, water industry has been found to be a major pollutant of the environment (among with all other industries of the energy sector). However, the identification of the appropriate strategies regarding the limitation of pollution through the water industry’s plants and establishments is a challenging task as the cost involved (research, design and application of pollution-reducing plans) is usually extremely high. On the other hand, it has been found that the pollution of air is being continued rapidly. More specifically, according to ‘studies done by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Harvard School of Public Health, some 64,000 Americans die prematurely each year because of illnesses made worse by air pollutants; pollutants include ozone, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen dioxide, with industrial sources including electrical power generating plants producing the great majority’ (Frazer, 2002, 36). Because of the above phenomenon, ‘it has been estimated that global emissions of greenhouse gases will need to be reduced by more than 50% over the next century, if atmospheric concentrations are to be stabilised’ (Chiotti et al 2002 237). However, it is quite doubtful whether the relevant efforts will be successful. The failure of the Kyoto Protocol of 1997 to secure the quality of air globally is an indicative example of the difficulty related with the efforts referring to the protection of the environment and the improvement of air quality around the world. Water industry could not be an exception to the above rule. References Chiotti, Q., Urquizo, N. (2002) Assessing the Environment and Health Benefits of Reducing GHG-Related Emissions in Canada: A Discussion.Canadian Journal of Regional Science, 25(2): 235-239 Petsonk, A. (1999) Water1: The Kyoto Protocol and the WTO: Integrating Greenhouse Gas Emissions Allowance Trading into the Global Marketplace, Duke Environmental Law & Policy Forum, 10(1): 185-205 Reitze, A. (2002) State and Federal Command-and-Control Regulation of Emissions from Fossil-Fuel Electric Power Generating Plants. Journal Title: Environmental Law, 32(2): 369-375 Nothing but Net: Renewable Energy and the Environment, MidAmerican Legal Fictions, and Supremacy Doctrine. Contributors: Steven Ferrey - author. Journal Title: Duke Environmental Law & Policy Forum. Volume: 14. Issue: 1. Publication Year: 2003. Page Number: 1-79 The Environmental Responsibility of the Regionalizing Electric Utility Industry. Contributors: Joel B. Eisen - author. Journal Title: Duke Environmental Law & Policy Forum. Volume: 15. Issue: 2. Publication Year: 2005. Page Number: 295-307 Diversify, Diversify: The Future of the Electric Utility Industry Will Depend on How Well We Balance Environmental, Energy, and Economic Goals. Contributors: James E. Rogers - author. Journal Title: Forum for Applied Research and Public Policy. Volume: 16. Issue: 3. Publication Year: 2001. Page Number: 85-91 The Gas Is Greener. Contributors: Lance Frazer - author. Journal Title: Environmental Health Perspectives. Volume: 110. Issue: 1. Publication Year: 2002. Page Number: 36-41 Low Water Consumption: A New Goal for Coal. Contributors: Lance Frazer - author. Journal Title: Environmental Health Perspectives. Volume: 112. Issue: 5. Publication Year: 2004. Page Number: 296-299 Energy Information Administration. May 2007. International Energy Outlook 2007, [Online], available at http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/emissions.html and http://www.eia.doe.gov/environment.html EIA (2004) What are Greenhouse Gases? [Online], available at http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/ggccebro/chapter1.html U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2007) Greenhouse gas emissions, [Online] available at http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/index.html Alberta government (2000)Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Alberta’s Cropping Industry, [Online], available at http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/cl3010 Eco Business Links (2007), [Online], available at http://www.ecobusinesslinks.com/carbon_offset_wind_credits_carbon_reduction.htm Wikipedia (2007) Carbon offset, [Online], available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_offset Read More