Prostitution in the United States - Research Paper Example

?Prostitution in the United s: A Literature Review Introduction There is a long history and thriving culture of prostitution in America, despiteits illegality in all but a few places (Anderson). In recent decades, the financial incentive for prostitutes has expanded beyond simply the monetary, and this complication has added both an extra layer of criminal activity and another dimension of risk for prostitutes. Drug abuse and dependence coupled with a lack of resources has resulted in many women turning to prostitution for the support of their drug habits and their lifestyles. With an estimated two million women working as prostitutes in the United States, this is a subject that bears examination (Murphy 775). By identifying the most important factors surrounding the problem of prostitution, further research can be done to address each issue in more detail. This study will use the definition of prostitution provided by Murphy: “the exchange of sexual services for economic compensation” (775). To better understand the historical context and contemporary situation of prostitution in the U.S., a general review of the literature was conducted. Who becomes a prostitute? Anyone could become a prostitute, and yet the women that do tend to have some common traits. Their childhoods are often as problematic as their adulthoods, and women who choose prostitution have often suffered from specific and predictable childhood experiences. Valera et al. report that almost half of a sample of prostitutes reported experiencing unwanted sexual contact on the part of an adult during their childhood. In the same sample, 39% of women also reported having been abused by a guardian to the point of injury (Valera et al.). Edwards, Halpern, and Wechsberg describe both a history of child abuse and the presence of psychological distress as predictors of prostitution. In another study by Farley and Barkan, 57% of prostitutes reported suffering sexual assault during childhood and 49% reported having been physically assaulted. Clearly, the childhood experiences of these women have a staggering impact on them that is long-lasting. Unfortunately, childhood abuse is not the only abuse prostitutes experience, even if it is the first. Many prostitutes have suffered abuse and exploitation from men their entire lives, first through family members and later from pimps and clients (Carter and Dalla). These and the previously described factors seem to point toward a connection between childhood abuse and adult prostitution, so that some intervening response process to the earlier abuse puts these women at a greater risk for prostitution. There are several identifiable socioeconomic factors at work in the histories of women who become prostitutes (Burnette et al.). Women who become prostitutes have lower rates of education and higher rates of homelessness when compared to non-prostitutes (Burnette, Schneider, Ilgen, and Timko). Of course, without economic necessity or a drug habit, these women would not be motivated to engage in prostitution (Murphy). Given other resources for economic support, these women would not need to turn to prostitution. Socioeconomic conditions that may contribute to a woman’s continuing engagement in prostitution include a poor economy with a job shortage. Women interested in leaving prostitution and pursuing mainstream employment may be hindered by the contemporary economic climate and its shortage of new jobs. There are other attributes that can predict whether or not a woman is likely to become a prostitute. For example, women who are addicted to drugs are much more likely to become prostitutes than women without substance abuse problems (Burnette et al.). As they sink deeper into drug abuse, their ability to gain or maintain traditional employment is hindered. Through prostitution, they can continue the cycle of their addiction and make money to continue buying more drugs. They may even meet a drug dealer who is also a pimp, and get involved with prostitution through his design. Drug addicts are more likely to prostitute themselves, but the inverse is also true: women who are already prostitutes are much more likely to use drugs (Burnette, et al.). According to Edwards, Halpern, and Wechsberg, heavy drug use is one of several factors associated with prostitution, especially when the drug is crack cocaine. Crack has certain unique qualities that position it uniquely in terms of prostitution, and because its effects are short lasting, the addict attempts to gain another dose not long after the last dose (Edwards et al.). The addiction is so strong that the addict is compelled to do whatever it takes to get more of the drug. When all money and assets are depleted, the addicted woman will trade sex for drugs, becoming a prostitute (Edwards et al.). The vicious cycle perpetuates itself as she repeatedly needs to subject herself to whatever is necessary to get another dose of the drug. Researchers theorize that prostitutes use drugs to help them detach from what is really happening to them (Romero-Daza, Weeks, and Singer). The culture of prostitution has been altered in the advent of crack cocaine. As Carter and Dalla describe, “the street presence of crack cocaine is directly and indirectly related to the diminishing price of sexual services and the increased danger and vulnerability associated with street-level prostitution” (98). Before crack, prostitutes generally traded sexual services for money. After becoming addicted to crack, prostitutes took the money out of the equation and began to accept drugs in lieu of cash. This introduced an escalating element of drug crime into the arena of prostitution. While a relationship exists between prostitution and an elevated risk for drug abuse, there is also research to suggest that prostitutes use drugs differently than other addicts. Drug addicted prostitutes show more incidents of severe and extreme use of drugs, including the use of I.V. drugs such as heroin (Burnette et al.). They’re also more likely to abuse multiple drugs and to be addicted to more than one drug (Burnette et al.). If Romero-Daza et al. are correct in their assertion that prostitutes use drugs to gain distance from reality, perhaps this documented use of harder or intravenous drugs suggests a desire to be completely removed from the experience of reality. Studies have also taken a look at the relationship between the medical treatment of drug abuse and prostitution, as described in the work of Burnette, Schneider, Ilgen, and Timko. Their study of 5,000 adults entering drug rehabilitation revealed that more than half of the women surveyed had prostituted at some time (Burnette et al.). Clearly, the link between drug abuse and prostitution is very strong, and the lifestyle of prostitutes puts them in the position to both seek and desire the effects of drugs. The risks to prostitutes in the United States The literature provides a wealth of information on the characteristics of women who engage in prostitution, and many of the studies describe the ways prostitutes are constantly putting themselves in risk-laden scenarios. Valera, Sawyer, and Schiraldi detail the risks prostitutes face to their physical health. Statistics reflect that prostitutes are at an extremely elevated risk for assault (Valera et al.). In a study of San Francisco prostitutes, all but 18% had been physically assaulted and more than half were attacked by clients (Valera et al.). Of the prostitutes in that same study, 66% identified suffering repeated physical assault at the hands of a pimp (Valera et al.). It seems that the women who are likely to prostitute themselves experience hardship and abuse that starts during their childhoods and that persists throughout their entire lives. Being sex workers does not make prostitutes immune from the crime of rape, and prostitutes suffer this form of abuse quite frequently. In fact, it is estimated that prostitutes are raped an average of once per week, and that a total of about 68% of prostitutes have been raped since entering the sex trade (Valera et al.). Assuming these women are going back to work even after suffering the abuse of rape, one can only imagine the psychological suffering that is being endured. These studies clearly demonstrate the intense risks women take when they choose to enter into prostitution, and hint at the underlying desperation that must be present when that choice is made. Certainly a number of environmental and circumstantial factors contribute to the elevated risk for abuse and rape encountered by prostitutes. Housing circumstances could place prostitutes at further risk, and one study found that 66% of its sample of prostitutes had been homeless in the past or were homeless at the time of survey (Valera et al.). Lacking shelter, the prostitute would be made vulnerable to even more risks, including those she subjects herself to in an effort to find a place to spend the night. Notably, studies have both shown that prostitutes are more likely to be homeless, and that homeless women are more likely to engage in prostitution (Edwards, Halpern, and Wechsberg). For homeless teens and young adults, prostitution is seen as a way to survive on the streets and is sometimes even referred to as “survival sex” (Walls and Bell). According to Murphy, the greatest risk to prostitutes is their exposure and transmission of sexually transmitted diseases. Prostitutes, especially drug-addicted prostitutes, are more likely to engage in unprotected sex and high-risk behaviors (Murphy). Lacking access to health insurance and health care, most prostitutes do not get even their most basic medical needs met (Murphy). Even when prostitutes have access to medical services, they struggle to keep appointments in the midst of their hectic lifestyle (Murphy). As bearers and transmitters of sexually transmitted diseases, prostitutes may unwittingly spread diseases because they don’t have the resources to seek testing or treatment. Prostitutes experience multiple levels of stress due to their work. While there are obvious physical repercussions associated with prostitution, there are also effects on their mental health (Burnette et al.). Prostitutions are at risk for depression, and also suffer from the intense psychological dysfunction that is the result of trauma exposure (Burnette et al.). Many prostitutes fit the diagnostic criteria for mental illness, and the risky atmospheres they exist in only serve to further add to feelings of depression, thoughts of suicide, and periods of emotional distress (Carter and Dalla). Furthermore, their drug abuse seems inextricably tied to these underlying psychological mechanisms, so that both must be treated in order for any true rehabilitation to take hold. Studies have examined the psychological status of prostitutes and found that many of these women have the symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder, a disease that results from exposure to intense trauma such as threatened death, witnessing another person being threatened with death, injury, and other stressful scenarios (Farley and Barkan). There also exists research based evidence of higher rates of bipolar illness, schizophrenia, and borderline disorder in subjects exhibiting the type of hypersexual and indiscriminate sexual behavior that prostitutes do (El-Bassel et al.). These studies seem to suggest that there is a very heavy toll paid on the part of prostitutes, and that the mental effects of being a prostitute linger long after the behavior has ceased. Prostitution obviously has many deleterious effects on the women that rely on it for economic gain. However, prostitution also has far reaching consequences for the society in which it occurs, and this aspect has much bearing on why it is illegal. As Anderson writes, prostitution is “commonly thought to harm the public health and quality of life of many others not directly active in it” (748). The legal system considers prostitution a “public order crime” or “crime that disrupts the order of a community” (Hayes-Smith and Shekarkhar). Neighborhoods with prostitute activity are associated with increases in all types of crime, elevated violence, and drug dealing (Brewer, Roberts, Muth, and Potterat). With prostitutes seeking out drugs so frequently, the neighborhood of prostitutes and the neighborhood of drug dealers begins to merge into one. Prostitution has a profoundly negative effect on the neighborhoods in which it occurs, and it also puts public safety and health at risk (Brewer et al.). As frequent intravenous drug users and carriers of disease, prostitutes can pose a risk to community health and a neighborhood’s wellbeing. A prostitute who has children or other family to support puts them in danger by engaging in risky behaviors herself. Furthermore, the types of drugs the prostitute uses also make her a risk to the people around her; as Romero-Daza et al. describe, alcohol, cocaine, and crack are all associated with violent behaviors. When a person is withdrawing from a drug and is starting to come down, the desire to make those bad feelings go away may inspire even more violence. Arguments for legalizing prostitution in the United States Despite all of the negative repercussions associated with prostitution, there are advocates who believe it should be legalized. They cite positive results of prostitution, including its ability to provide women “an alternative to starving or stealing” (Roleff). Supporters of the decriminalization of prostitution believe that prostitutes should be permitted to use their bodies as a way to generate income and that it is unfair to prevent them from doing so (Hayes-Smith and Shekarkhar). They also state that sex workers would more likely to report abuse when it occurred and to seek out medical treatment if the stigma were removed from their trade (Hayes-Smith and Shekarkhar). Furthermore, decriminalization would allow lawmakers to ensure that certain safety standards become requirements, such as drug tests and other restrictions. Supporters also believe sex workers would be empowered to support themselves in a legitimate way if prostitution was made legal. Conclusion Prostitution in the United States is widespread, frequent, and often motivated by a desire to gain drugs. Childhood abuse puts one at risk for becoming a prostitute, as does drug use and homelessness. The life of a prostitute is very dangerous, as prostitutes put themselves in risky situations every time they go to work. Violent crimes and rape often result, and the prostitute may have no resources for seeking medical attention in the aftermath of an assault. While radicals believe sex workers would be liberated by the decriminalization of prostitution, it seems clear that this dangerous practice endangers women’s lives and threatens American communities. Research should focus on interventions that can help prostitutes rehabilitate from drug addiction and gain legal, long-term employment. Works Cited Anderson, Scott A. “Prostitution and Sexual Autonomy: Making Sense of the Prohibition of Prostitution.” Ethics 112.4 (2002): 748-780. Brewer, Devon D., John M. Roberts, Jr., Stephen Q. Muth, and John J. Potterat. “Prevalence of Male Clients of Street Prostitute Women in the United States.” Human Organization 67.3 (2008): 346-356. Burnette, Mandi L., Renee Schneider, Mark A. Ilgen, and Christine Timko. “Women’s Past-Year Prostitution Status and Receipt of Substance Abuse Treatment Status.” Psychiatric Services 59.12 (2008): 1458-1461. Carter, David J., and Rochelle L. Dalla. “Transactional Analysis Case Report: Street-Level Prostituted Women as Mental Health Care Clients.” Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity 13.1 (2006): 95-119. Edwards, Jessica M., Carolyn T. Halpern, and Wendee M. Wechsberg. “Correlates of Exchanging Sex for Drugs or Money Among Women Who Use Crack Cocaine.” AIDS Education and Prevention 18.5 (2006): 420-429. El-Bassel, Nabila, Robert F. Schilling, Kathleen L. Irwin, Sairus Faruque, Louisa Gilbert, Jennifer Von Bargen, Yolanda Serrano, and Brian R. Edlin. “Sex Trading and Psychological Distress among Women Recruited from the Streets of Harlem.” American Journal of Public Health 87.1 (1997): 66-70. Farley, Melissa, and Howard Barkan. “Prostitution, Violence, and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder.” Women & Health 27.3 (1998): 37-49. Hayes-Smith, Rebecca, and Zahra Shekarkhar. “Why is Prostitution Criminalized? An Alternative Viewpoint on the Construction of Sex Work.” Contemporary Justice Review 13.1 (2010): 13-55. Murphy, Lyn Stankiewicz. “Understanding the Social and Economic Contexts Surrounding Women Engaged In Street-Level Prostitution.” Issues in Mental Health Nursing 31.12 (2010): 775-784. Roleff, Tamara L., ed. “Prostitution is Beneficial.” Prostitution. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2006. Romero-Daza, Nancy, Margaret Weeks, and Merrill Singer. “Nobody Gives a Damn if I Live or Die”: Violence, Drugs, AND Street-Level Prostitution in Inner-City Hartford, Connecticut.” Medical Anthropology 22.3 (2003): 233-259. Valera, Roberto J., Robin G. Sawyer, and Glenn R. Schiraldi. “Violence and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder in a Sample of Inner City Street Prostitutes.” American Journal of Health Studies 16.3 (2000): 149-155. Walls, N. Eugene and Stephanie Bell. “Correlates of Engaging in Survival Sex among Homeless Youth and Young Adults.” Journal of Sex Research 48.5 (2011): 423-436. Read More