Concepts for the Built Environment - Research Proposal Example

Research Concepts for the Built Environment Introduction A review of relevant literature has been conducted to examine the question: “Does the academic literature provide clear evidence that eco-town development and zero-carbon buildings will realistically be of material assistance in fighting climate change?” Ecology and Environmentalism According to Lovelock’s theory, the earth is a living organism. Lovelock has described the working of the living earth in the past and the present based on research. The author has presented the Earth as a coherent system that has the ability to self-regulate and self-change. Evidence by geochemists have suggested that the Earth’s crust, oceans, and air are the direct products of living beings, or modified by the presence of living beings. The material state of the world is determined the activities of its neighbours. When the activities of an organism changes the material environment to a more favourable state, and leaves more progeny, then the species and change would increase until a new stable state was reached. Daisyworld is a simple model that illustrated the working of Gaia. An imaginary world spun and circled and was warmed by a star. There were two types of daisies; black and white, and their competition for territory led to accurate planetary regulation that was comfortable for plants like daisies. There was no foresight, planning, or purpose but a theoretical view of a planet in homeostasis. Daisyworld has been a source of insight and answer for questions on theoretical ecology and Darwinism. Inspired by the Gaia theory, life on Earth has been considered planetary-scale phenomenon, which is near immortal on this scale and has no need to reproduce. Living organisms could not partially occupy the planet, and sufficient living organisms were required for the regulation of the environment. Incomplete occupation would be rendered uninhabitable by the ineluctable forces of physical and chemical evolution. The physical and chemical environment was affected by the growth of the organism, and the evolution of species and rocks were tightly coupled as a single indivisible process. Ecological models that are stable mathematically and include a large number of competing species, consider the species and the physical environment as a single system (Lovelock, 1995). Carson’s eloquent writing and imagery illustrated the effect of indiscriminate use of chemicals on the environment. Silent Spring has been considered instrumental in triggering environmental movements not only in America, but also around the world. Since the publication of Silent Spring, environmental interest groups such as the Natural Resources Defense Council, Environmental Defense Fund, and the Wilderness Society were formed. Such groups have been able to influence public policy through public opinion and persuading legislators and committees support environmental issues (Baker, 2003). McHarg’s (1995) classic method’s of landscape analysis is well known in ecological design circles, and considered a pre-requisite in the planning of human settlements. A future designer should be able to able to break down regions according to its appropriate uses. The author focused on patterns of land use and morphology of human settlements, and emphasized on the preservation and introduction of nature in ecological design. Built Environment and Climate Change Climate change has become a major concern for a majority of countries. Several technical challenges and opportunities exist as sustainability has become an economic force influencing both building construction and energy supply. Other concerns include security of future energy supplies, materials and water supply that are becoming short in supply. As many countries are developing, the rate of building construction globally has been unprecedented. Little thought has been given to the impact of construction and operations on the environment. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has reported that global warming has been caused by human activity associated with greenhouse gas emissions. A major cause of concern has been the increased level of CO2 in the atmosphere. In order to avoid catastrophic climate change, the average temperature rise should not exceed 2C, which equates to CO2 levels below 450 ppm. According to the contraction and convergence principle all countries would emit the same per capita finally reducing to zero carbon. Globally the built environment is responsible for 50% emissions and 70% including transportation associated with mobility in the built environment. The built environment could be classified into new buildings, existing buildings and supporting infrastructure for transport, waste, energy supply, water/sewage, etc. The new buildings sector has been considered the easiest to deal with, and as they are likely to be around for a long time, they should perform well in relation to CO2 emissions. The UK Government has set a target of “zero carbon” by 2016 for all new houses. Some regional governments such as Wales have set the target for zero carbon by 2011. Zero carbon building has been defined as reduced energy demand for thermal energy and power, and supply of energy from renewable energy sources integrated into the building. Integrated renewable energy systems include solar, thermal, photo-voltaic, wind and biomass. The majority of government policy has been aimed at reduction of operating emissions from buildings; the energy used for the production and transport of materials and products. Low carbon buildings have embodied energy equivalent to its operating energy during its lifetime. A true zero carbon building would not only offset the operating energy by renewable energy, but also its embodied energy (Clarke et al., 2008). Measures for Reduction of Carbon Footprint within Built Environments Buildings account for approximately half of energy and greenhouse gas emissions. A potential solution is the design, construction and maintenance of environmentally sustainable built environment. Davies (2005) conducted a survey of over 800 green building owners, developers, architects, consultants and engineers in the USA and Canada, green buildings were perceived as outperforming conventional commercial buildings with regard to wellbeing of occupants, building value and return on investment, and respondents concluded that “green was good for asset value.” Existing buildings make up a majority of the bulk commercial office accommodation, and it has not been clear how to retrofit and refurbish these buildings for sustainability. Governments, the construction and property development industry, private organizations and the general public have shown interest for fostering sustainable and climate-friendly built environment by building carbon-reducing “green” buildings. Kozlowski (2003) defined green building as a building that “uses a careful integrated design strategy that minimised energy use, maximises daylight, has a high degree of indoor air quality and thermal comfort, conserves water, reuses materials and uses materials with recycled content, minimises site disruptions, and generally provides a high degree of occupant comfort.” The integration of innovation and effective technologies, design approaches and environmentally sensitive practices the ecological footprint of buildings could be reduced significantly without incurring much financial cost. The California Sustainable Building task Force has estimated that upfront costs of about 2 % is required to support green design, which would result in savings of 20 % of construction costs. Economic savings are achieved through lower operations and maintenance costs; lower utility costs for electricity, water and disposal of waste (Kats et al., 2003). According to the Green Building Council of Australia (2008), green buildings are becoming mainstream and new commercial buildings comprise approximately 10 % in the USA and 30 % in Australia. A three-pronged strategy to cut carbon emissions from the build environment by the Chartered Institute of Buildings (2009) include decarbonisation of the grid; radical improvement in performance of existing buildings; and promotion of zero carbon new buildings. Radical improvement in the performance of existing buildings includes a co-ordinated strategy for reduction of energy wastage and in existing stock of buildings; energy rating and certification including identification of cost-effective energy efficiency measures for all buildings; use of market incentives for encouraging owners to improve energy performance of buildings. Promotion of low and zero carbon new buildings include code for sustainable homes, development of code for sustainable buildings, new definition of zero carbon, and greater level of investment in zero carbon technologies, practices and innovations for the future. Legislation Modern methods of construction (MMC) have most of the construction process carried off-site, resulting in efficient utilization of resources, lesser waste, and better control over quality. Adoption of MMC would be considered a vehicle for the delivery of low carbon solutions for construction programmes. Building regulations are the primary driver for zero carbon in new buildings. Combining a mandatory top-down approach with a bottom-up approach as levels of awareness and responsibilities grow has been considered vital. It is widely believed that the value of buildings would be affected by their sustainability credentials. For example, the introduction of building rating systems would require buildings to declare their sustainability credentials. Buildings having low sustainability ratings would be considered an investment risk, strengthening the economic drivers for sustainability. The focus on new buildings is crucial for a zero carbon future, but it will not reduce emissions and only reduce the rate of increase. The existing buildings have been considered the main problem area, and have been considered difficult to deal with regulation. They are difficult to treat and make them more energy efficient or integrate them with renewable energy systems. The energy efficiency measures could be too costly for many people, and it is not easy to determine the most appropriate package of measures for specific buildings, or the savings that could be achieved, or the associated costs. The measures applied for such buildings should include decarbonisation of energy supply at the grid level. Infrastructures have associated emissions from water/sewage, waste, or transportation. Measures should include reduced demand, and efficient and effective local central systems supply. However, the grid based systems are difficult to change and would take long time to include the changes. While creating master plans, all carbon emission reductions should be considered. Systems that could be integrated without significant expenditure, and could result in significant reduction in energy consumption and waste should be given priority. Also, the use of renewable such as biofuels should be incorporated. Reduction in demand for operation and embodied energy, and use of renewable energy supply from building or community integrated to large scale grid requires a balanced approach. A holistic approach is required while dealing with buildings. It requires inclusion of infrastructures and associated embodied and operating energy. Lifestyle has been considered an important factor which could induce change; especially the way we conduct ourselves and the pollution of consumerism. Low carbon future could be perceived as gloomy, which is not the case, and sustainable lifestyles would create vibrant economies fostering supporting social structures and cultural trends that are cleaner, healthier, and “feel good.” A change in attitude from “people making a small insignificant contribution to the whole,” to “a large improvement to individual quality of life” is required to effect the necessary change. Sustainable future lifestyle should not be viewed as a constrained existence, but as a challenge that offers new and exciting opportunities for improving style of living and working. There are uncertainties relating to low carbon design and operating it, but there is adequate knowledge to deal with it (Jones, 2009). The built environment accounted for approximately 40% of the total energy consumption in the UK, and over 50% of all carbon emissions in the UK could be attributed to energy use in buildings. The UK Government has recognized that the built environment has a crucial role in the sustainable energy economy. Measures have been developed to reduce carbon emissions by 11.7 MtC/yr by 2020, which is equivalent to 8 % of total emissions from 2005. Measures include year-on-year buildings standards improvement, higher standards for products consuming energy and implementation of carbon reduction commitments in larger organizations. From 1990 to 2005, there has been a increase in 15% rise in energy consumption and here has been no substantial carbon reductions since the 1995s. Energy consumption in the domestic sector has been driven by a multitude of factors including 30% increase in the number of households; deployment of central heating in 90% households; and doubling of power consumption by appliances since 1970. Approximately 85% of the buildings were more than 20% old. Central heating has resulted in 6 C increase in indoor average air temperatures, but at the expense of energy efficiency caused by inadequate levels of thermal insulation. The building stock has been of poor quality resulting in the classification of 2.5 million households as fuel poor. The energy consumption has increased by over 17% driven by explosive trends in IT, and poorly designed and regulated developments resulting in unnecessary installation of air conditioning, between 1990 and 2003. The consumption of energy associated with air conditioning has been projected to increase 25% by 2020. Poorly maintained plant and fabric has caused 40% increase in energy use in non-domestic buildings that are over 10 years old. Low levels of energy efficiency in the built environment offer scope for improvement in performance that could be achieved by deploying techniques ranging from simple plant techniques, use of proper insulation, and the deployment of advanced energy monitoring and control techniques. Energy performance in buildings was unregulated before 1981. The scope of building regulations has expanded to include design compliance calculations for carbon emissions for heating; hot water; ventilation and lighting energy. Carbon emissions from a typical house in the UK are approximately 7.5 tonnes CO2 annually, which could improve to approximately 3.8 tonnes CO2 annually by simply upgrading to the 2002 fabric standards and installing a modern gas heating system. Other measures such as super-insulation of dwellings could result in savings of heat energy upto 80%. The majority of buildings have been constructed prior to the development of building energy standards. Approximately 54 % cavity-walled homes do not have cavity insulation. Government initiatives to address the issues include promotion of efficiency upgrades or the use of low-carbon technologies. In a detailed survey of 8000 dwellings it was concluded that 50% reduction in carbon emissions could be achieved by fabric and system upgrades, and another 50% reduction could be achieved by the deployment of renewable energy systems, heat pumps and combined heat and power plant. Net carbon neutrality could also be achieved by local commercial-scale wind firms. Energy savings were highly dependent on the building type in the non-domestic sector. For example, a naturally ventilated open-plan would result in approximately 70 kg CO2/m2 annually which could be reduced to 40 kg CO2/m2 by refurbishing to 2002 standards. Air conditioned offices with emissions of 140 kgCO2/m2 would result in savings of around 78 kgCO2/m2 annually. Implementation of non-standard technologies such as controllers linked to occupancy and/or daylight sensors could reduce lighting electricity consumption by 40-90%. It has been identified that 40% reduction in power use could be achieved from IT equipment. Reduced energy used by computer servers could result in 50% energy usage. Secondary benefits include reduced heat gains, comfortable environments, and lower energy use for cooling. The Government has set a target of 60% carbon emissions reduction while transforming the housing and building market. This would require a profound change in the built environment. Legislatures including the EU Energy Performance of Buildings Directive and UK National Calculation Methodology (NCM) have been the primary driver of energy efficiency in buildings. NCM provides energy certificates and building compliance for non-domestic buildings and UK Governments Standard Assessment Procedure for domestic buildings (Clarke et al., 2008). Incentives The Government has adopted several initiatives for delivering energy and CO2 savings in buildings reflecting the preference for fiscal incentives compared to legislation. In 2003/2004 the budget for these incentives was 270 million, and devoted to bodies including Carbon Trust and the Energy Saving Trust. Carbon Trust has a focus on large industry energy consumers, aiding them to adopt energy-efficiency practices and technologies. The Energy Savings Trust has a focus on domestic and small energy consumers. The Energy Efficient Commitment scheme provides help and assistance to consumers for assisting them to reduce their energy bills. Legislation and enforcement have been considered driver for future improvements. The Energy Performance Certificate is one such scheme that sets mandatory minimum standards for existing dwellings. EPBD has other components such as regular inspection of boilers, air-conditioning, and checks on building air-tightness (Clarke et al., 2008). Technology and Renewable Energy Improvement in performance would require integration of new technologies within energy supply and demand, in addition to institutions, legislation and improved practice. Several technologies are available for bringing about a step change. However, these options are uneconomical and the situation could improve as energy costs increase and the low-carbon market develops. Smart facades include advanced glazings that provide insulation and/or solar capture/exclusion; transparent insulation material for reduction of construction heat loss and capturing solar energy; breathable ventilation; and novel shading and light directing devices. Daylight utilization systems incorporating integrated artificial lighting control displace electricity use and improve visual environment. Solar energy collection/conversion systems such as Trombe-Michel walls, thermo-siphon air panels, and solar ventilation pre-heat and light shelves could be deployed for collecting and delivering heating or lighting. Roof-mounted solar thermal collectors could provide contribution to hot water, photovoltaic components for converting solar energy to heat and electricity. Solar technologies could bring about significant reductions in building lighting, and space heating demands reshaping the demand profile and better accommodating the renewable sources of energy. Systems producing thermal and/or electrical power minimise the demand on public energy infrastructure. These include photovoltaic components and encased wind turbines, and the public electric supply could be accessed when renewable resources are unavailable. Co-operative systems could reduce conventional electric consumption by 90%. Air- and ground-source heat pumps could replace gas-fired boilers. Ground-source heat pumps could operate with coefficient of performance of 4, and operate on electricity aligned with the scenario of a future with dwindling gas supplies. Combined heat and power systems that utilise oil, gas or biofuels could be expected decentralise energy solutions. The Government has a target to increase CHP capacity to 10,000 by 2010, approximately double from its current levels. There is ongoing research work in the field of fuel cells for application within buildings, but the performance is yet uncertain because of the high capital costs, and challenges during deployment due to lack of skills to design, install and maintain systems. There has been a steady increase in the number and variety of electrical appliances, and despite the energy labelling schemes, financial incentives and increased public awareness power consumption of some devices such as plasma televisions are greater than the obsolete device being replaced. According to estimates by the Energy Savings Trust, electronic appliances would account for 45% domestic energy use. A challenge to revise the upward trend would include radical improvements in appliance energy efficiency and elimination of stand-by losses. The popularity of the internet has opened exciting prospects such as embedding low cost sensors within buildings and transmitting high-frequency data on environmental conditions and appliance power consumption to providers of services and products for delivering appropriate services, energy use statistics (to regulatory bodies), remote control of household appliances, management of micro-grids for utilities, and so on. Smart metering that gives users up-to-date information on their consumption could lead to significant reductions in energy consumption (Clarke et al., 2008). Other Measures One of the challenges has been to incorporate green building initiatives into existing buildings, as the vast stock of buildings need to be retrofitted. Commercial buildings have multiple-tenants, and sustainability retrofits or technology upgrades requires co-operation and participation of several stakeholders. Issues include technological capacities, cost and tangible demands from various stakeholders. The Clinton Climate Initiative Energy Efficiency Building Retrofit Program is an attempt by former US President Bill Clinton to focus attention on building retrofitting. The program involves energy service companies, banks and 15 of the world’s largest cities to reduce energy consumption in buildings. Participating city councils retrofit buildings and provide incentives for encouraging private owners to audit and retrofit buildings. The energy service companies conduct audits and identify energy efficient practices and banks provide financing at no net cost. While most people and organizations support sustainability and initiatives, it is unclear whether organizations would pay for such retrofits, which would result in higher rents during the short term (Clarke et al., 2008. Issues Miller and Buys (2008) studied retrofitting commercial office buildings in commercial buildings. Participants acknowledged the growth in demand and believed that the trend would continue. There was an increase in awareness of issues, and the importance of conserving the environment and the emergence of sustainability as a key political and social issue. Also, benefits including social, economic, and environmental benefits of residing in sustainable commercial buildings were known in terms of conservation of waste, water and energy. However, participants were interested in detailed breakdown of costs and savings of specific sustainability features. It was felt that a shift in community attitudes and behaviours was visible. Clearly, conservation of energy and water were obvious benefits. The involvement of media, local governments and tenants publicising benefits achieved by sustainable commercial buildings was helpful in creating awareness. Importance of sustainability issues varied between organizations; government and larger corporate tenants considered sustainability as critical issues and sustainability was the norm and residing in non-sustainable buildings was not an option, whereas it was considered emerging option by the smaller organizations as cost and location were dominant factors. All participants agreed that cost was the greatest barrier to sustainability, and participants expressed desire to view the cost benefit analysis and pay-back of proposed technologies and desired to have a trial of the technologies involved. Conclusion Warming of the climate system has been unequivocally accepted, and increase in global temperature has been attributed to increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations. 50% of emisssions globally, and 40% in the UK are from the built environment. Emissions from the built environment have been broadly classified as space heating, appliances, and transportation or travel. A target of "zero carbon" for new buildings by 2016 has been set by the Government in UK. Government strategy for new buildings includes reduction of operating emissions, and energy for production and transport of materials. 85% buildings have been classified as old stock, which have been addressed by the legislation, individual lifestyle, and retrofitting. Measures for addressing carbon emissions from the build environment include legislation; technology; alternative fuels; renewable energy; and financial incentives and programs. Legislation includes standards for buildings within building regulations. Financial incentives have resulted in bodies such as the Carbon Trust and Energy Savings Trust that provide a variety to tools for assessment of carbon footprint, and advisory services. Technology includes devices, appliances, etc. that utilize a variety of methods to reduce energy consumption. The use of co-operative systems such as photovoltaic cells along with wind turbines, and using public electric supply when renewable sources are unavailable could reduce conventional electric consumption by 90%. Gas-fired boilers could be replaced by heat pumps that are highly efficient. Also, the use of oil, gas, or biofuels would decentralise energy use and reduce demand within the built environment. Awareness programs, financial incentives, and energy labelling schemes are expected to lead consumers to lifestyles that reduce the carbon footprint. A typical house in the UK emits approximately 7.5 tonnes CO2 annually. Fabric and system upgrades could cause 50% reduction of carbon emissions. It has been estimated that approximately 3.7 tonnes of CO2 could be reduced by following building standards and using modern gas heating systems. 80% savings of heat energy could be achieved by other measures such as super-insulation of dwellings. Renewable energy systems, heat pumps, and combined heat and power plants could result in another 50% reduction. Evidence suggests that measures adopted have been effective in the control of CO2 emissions, which eventually would mitigate climate change. References Baker, R. (2003). Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring and the Beginning of the Environmental Movement in the United States. Available: http://classwebs.spea.indiana.edu/bakerr/v600/rachel_carson_and_silent_spring.htm. Last accessed 11 November 2009. CIOB. (2009). Reducing carbon emissions from buildings. CIOB. 2. Clarke,J., Johnstone,C., Kelly, N., Strachan, P. & Tuohy, P. (2008). The role of built environment energy efficiency in a sustainable. Energy Policy. 36, 4605-4609. Creyts, J., Derkach, A., Nyquist, S., Ostrowski, K. & Stephenson, J. (2007). Reducing U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions: How Much at What Cost? Available: http://www.mckinsey.com/clientservice/ccsi/greenhousegas.asp. Last accessed 11 November 2009. Davies, R. (2005), Green Value – Green Buildings, Growing Assets, Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors, London. Green Building Council of Australia. (2008). Valuing green: how green buildings affect property values and getting the valuation method right. Available at: http://www.gbca.org.au/. Last accessed 11 November 2009. Jones, P. (2009). A Low Carbon Built Environment. Indoor and Built Environment. 18 (5), 380-381. Kats, G., Alevantis, L., Berman, A., Mills, E. & Perlman, J. (2003). The costs and financial benefits of green buildings – a report to California’s Sustainable Building Task Force, Capital E. Available at: www.cap-e.com/ewebeditpro/items/O59F3481.pdf. Last accessed 11 November 2009. Kozlowski, D. (2003). Green gains: where sustainable design stands now. Building Operating Management, Vol. 50 No. 7, pp. 26-32. Lovelock, J. (1995). The Ages of Gaia. UK: W W Norton. 215. McHarg, I (1995). Design with Nature. USA: Wiley. 208. Miller, M. & Buys, L. (2008). Retrofitting commercial office buildings for sustainability: tenants’ perspectives. Journal of Property Investment & Finance. 26 (6), 552-561. Appendix A: Figures Figure 1. US Abatement Curve (Creyts et al., 2007) Figure 2. Genzyme Corporation: World-class Example of Green Building Construction (Creyts et al., 2007) Read More