Inquiry-Based Learning - Literature review Example

TRADITIONAL ESSAY By student’s Name: Code+ Course: Instructor’s Name: University Name: City, State: Date of submission: ESSAY: INQUIRY BASED LEARNING Abstract; Recently science has taken a new dimension and has been seen to play a crucial role in day to day technological advancement in America. As inhabitants of this great and influential nation all over the world there is need for us to be in the fore front as far as technology is concerned. This can only be done by improving the scientific perspective in America by constantly coming up with recent discoveries in the field of science (Elton, 2006). This can only be accomplished through effective education system that is channeled towards science education which should be as methodical as possible .This will greatly help our young professionals and students to effectively develop their future careers in order for them to keep in touch with the latest technological advancements experienced across the world to make sure that the United States of America does not lag behind. Although various programs to harness studies and careers related to Science, Mathematics, Engineering and Technology has been put in place, these programs have not been effective enough to meet the goals specified. Young children especially those in elementary schools need not be left aside and the earlier they get introduced and exposed to the scientific world the better to meet the increased demand for scientific inventions and innovations in America. Inquiry-based learning (IBL) has therefore come as a solution and the best method of teaching that is guaranteed of taking America to greater heights as far as science is concerned .This method mainly deals with the knowledge creation process through enquiry, an approach that is student-centered, engaging and that can be termed as self-motivated learning approach (Alford, 1998). Students ought to develop skills in carrying out their own research which eventually will make them ultimate learners. Apart from being widely applied in science the method has lately taken another stride to include other disciplines that assume enquiry courses and even to accommodate degree programmes of the same nature. Recent surveys has shown that the method can improve student engagement, produce better results in academic advancement and improve the academic standards of United States of America. Teachers have also been seen to benefit directly by students involving them in their research which they combine which teaching to produce all round students (Prince, 2004). Introduction Philosophers who are known to have existed as early as 17th century as Spinoza maintained that knowledge can only be found in idea manipulation rather than by the act of transmitting facts. John Dewey (1859-1952) who was a philosopher and educator in America is well known for promoting an education system known as ‘learning by doing’. Having being influenced by the great works of Dewey the system of inquiry-based learning was widely adopted by many schools in 1970s and by teachers in most institutions of higher learning. A good example has been the College of Hampshire where the curriculum of inquiry has been adopted and works effectively (Weaver, 1989), while the University of McMaster in Canada has applied this method of teaching for more than twenty years. Despite this mode teaching being into existence for all these years and the fact that most literature tries to approve it as seen in the examples of (Weaver, 1989; Alford, 1998; Lee, 2004; and Bateman, 1990) the inquiry-based learning literature has not been well covered regardless of its long history. This is due to misunderstanding of its whole concept. Therefore its concept ought to include simpler terms such as; learning based on discovery, inquiry-centered learning, and research for undergraduates or inductive method of learning. Although the method has attracted attention of many learning institutions a lot is yet to be done to increase its popularity further by reviewing and evaluating the Inquiry-Based Learning approach (Biggs, 2003). This review will seek to explore its nature, scrutinize its theoretical support, describe its applicability in the institutions of higher learning and analyze its effectiveness in its current form. However the main aim is to attest, identify and determine the gaps that could have existed in understanding the inquiry-based learning approach. In-depth understanding of Inquiry-Based Learning This method of learning falls under the inductive mode to teaching and learning as revealed by Felder and Prince (2006).Inductive method is a learning and teaching technique that starts with making observations, studying, analyzing and interpreting data generated from facts and certain procedures. Prince and Felder further stipulated that inductive method also comprises a number of teaching techniques that includes; learning based on problem solving, learning based on case study and that is based on projects. Inductive mode of teaching has various characteristics that includes; It is centered towards students (Kember, 1997) where if emphasis mostly on student learning as opposed to communication mode of knowledge transmission; Active learning that is based on doing as outlined by Kember (1997) and its more problem solving approach coupled with various discussions among students on day to day issues affecting them and seeking to answer certain questions( Prince & Felder 2006); A learning that is self-directed aiming at providing skills to learners and where the students have a sense of responsibility towards their own learning; A reality seeking approach to learning where students and learners seeks to attain results based on their own observations ( Bruner,1990) and where the students seeks to create knowledge rather than knowledge being transmitted to them via instruction. This approach incorporates independent research done outside classroom by either a group of students or individually which helps the students to be more independent in search for knowledge rather than always relying on their teachers. Hampshire College in the Western Massachusetts is one of the oldest known tertiary institution to adopt inquiry- based learning as early as 1970 attracting the likes of Bell(1996) as later cited in a research carried out by Weaver (1989). The themes set rolling across the curriculum incorporating inquiry at the Hampshire College comprised; A coherent work by students and which involved a detailed study on various subjects aimed at equipping students with the necessary knowledge required to carry out their own research and come up with their own findings. A mode of teaching that involves active participation of students in class in their quest for knowledge. An exercise that is meant to be student-centered as students are engaged in their own learning process through research and are capable of discussing the research problems, answer the questions the research seeks to address and comes up with detailed conclusions and findings. This mode of learning aims at reducing competition among students and institutions as sometimes includes group work and helps the slow runners to keep to the pace as it is collaborative in nature. Helps students to become more practical and equips them with necessary skills and problem solving technique. However at lower levels the inquiry –based learning involves giving guidance and direction where a teacher asks questions and provides an explanation on how the questions ought to be tackled although this happens within the realm of independent research where students go ahead and carry out their research as per the guidelines and try to answer various questions the research seeks to address. Theoretical Grounds for Inquiry-Based Learning Extensive research by students which has come to be accepted in learning forms the bases of theoretical support of inquiry-based learning. This approach stems from constructivism and seeks to incorporate research based on intellectual development and motivational methods to learning. Inquiry-based learning also tends to follow the footsteps of cycle-based teaching since they share various elements in common (Lohman, 2002). In the recent past great emphasis has been put on inductive methods of learning such as Inquiry –Based Learning in order to reinforce the already research-teaching oriented curriculum in institutions of learning. It is therefore important for us to discuss theoretical arguments that show the importance for teachers at tertiary levels to adopt Inquiry – Based Learning. As Von Humboldt put in: ‘’ It is a characteristic feature of universities to approach science as a not-yet-solved problem and this is the driving force of doing research …the relationship between teacher and student will be different from any previous one. The teacher’s function is not to be at service to the student –they jointly devote themselves to science. The teacher depends upon students and without them he would be less successful…to achieve his goals, the teacher will seek partnership between him who is more experienced but more biased and less enthusiastic ,and the student, who is less experienced but unbiased ‘’ (Von Humboldt, 1810/2002; translated by the author). Constructivism According to Bruner (1990), every individual learner needs to have a capacity to construct and develop knowledge and skills on his/her own. This construction is based on reality guided by the exposure the learner has towards the surrounding environment. As the individual gets exposed to new experiences day by day he/she is able to filter and store the information via mental structures that have a capacity to process the already acquired knowledge ,concepts and beliefs in such a manner that the already acquired knowledge makes sense and can be practically applied by the learners in the process of decision making and problem solving (Prince & Felder, 2006).This theory of learning dates back many centuries but most recently various research on the field of developmental psychology renown researchers who includes; Lev Vygotsky (1978), John Dewey (1972) and Jean Piaget (1972), has taken another perspective which examines constructivism in a broad manner. However constructivism is looked into cognitive perspective. Piaget emphasis on cognitive development where individuals ought to construct knowledge of their own which should emanate from experience. This experience helps in creation and formation of mental modes that aids in the learning process. On the other hand social constructivism is centered towards social context mode of learning. Vygotsky who supported social constructivism comes up with various aspects that play a crucial in the development of children that includes; cultural history, language and the social background. According to the constructivist theory for a teaching to be termed as effective it is supposed to offer the experiences which; Seek to build on what is already known to the students so that the students can have a better connection and comprehension resulting from existing knowledge (Bruner, 1990). To enable students become independent in their decision making process and problem solving techniques which makes them more active and learners who are self-directed towards making their own observations, discussions on several approaches used for data collection and interpretation of results based on certain models. ‘’Example: (Zupanc, 2010),in a behavioral Neurobiology lecture course that I designed at the university of Manchester ,I included in the lectures on neural connections in the brain and critical discussion of the limitations of the neural-tract-tracing methods ,the approach commonly employed to elucidate neural connections. As a part of exercise students are asked to interpret the results obtained through hypothetical neural tract-tracing experiment and to suggest proper control experiments. Finally, using a similar critical analysis, some published papers are reviewed, and potential deficiencies in the design of the experiments and/or the interpretation of the results are discussed’’. Provide realism in the learning opportunities where students are fully engaged in the learning process and presented with the chance of making their own observations and conclusions. Promote collaborative method of learning where the students are given a chance to work together by forming small study groups which involves each and every student in making contribution and discussing the matters at hand thereby engaging them in active learning (Piaget, 1972). ‘’Example; Derek W. Yalden, Reader at the University of Manchester ,coordinated –for many years –in collaboration with several faculty colleagues(including the author),an ecological field course. This course was offered to undergraduate students annually and run over two weeks immediately after the end of the school year at the Kindrogan Field Centre in Scotland. The course was divided into two sections. During a General Project section, students worked in groups and were introduced to important ecological concepts and techniques. During a special project section, each student focused on a project of his/her choice. The practical and research sessions during the day were supplemented by lectures in the evening. Each faculty member supervised a handful of special projects ,which included topics, such as: ’Effects of temperature on loco motor behavior and air retrieval in tadpoles,’ ‘Does sheep grazing affect the predation of bird of ground bird eggs?’; ‘Comparisons between the feeding sites of swallows and bats’; and ‘Moth diversity in larch and birch woods.’ At the end of the course, students were required to write a report in the form of scientific paper and to give an oral presentation of their project. Overall the design of the course equipped the students with a sound foundation in ecology through the genera projects, whereas the special projects empowered them to assume ownership over research project defined flexibly enough to be developed in a number of different directions.’’ Hoover (1996) in his attempts to support constructivism argues that rather than teachers doing everything for students in the transmission approach to teaching they ought to directly involve students in teaching process by providing directives to students and allowing them to generate the knowledge for themselves. However Hoover argues that the constructivist courses needs to be assigned more time as knowledge ought to be built actively (Bransford et al., 2000). Learner Motivation The principal aim for advocating an approach that is inquiry based is its ability to motivate learners through active participation in learning activities. Bransford (2000) comes up with an appealing review that digs deeper into the concept of cognition research. Through their research they found that motivation has a great impact on the time and energy that people usually assign to learning. They also held that for tasks to be motivating they need to be challenging but to a reasonable level of difficulty. However if they are too difficult they may frustrate and discourage students in their search for knowledge and on the other hand if they are too cheap the students may end up being bored. As Ciardello (2003) puts it across that students can only learn better if they are allowed to explore their own findings which aims at satisfying their curiosity which acts as a driving force in the quest for knowledge. This equips students with better problems solving techniques which aim to answer to the questions gathered (Dewey, 1933). ‘’Example; Utpal Banerjee, Howard Hughes Medical Institute Professor at the University of California, Los Angeles, created an educational research programme and combined professional-quality research with a strategy to expose a large number of students to research-based education. Organized in a classes of up to 30 students per quarter ,the consortium succeeded in the first comprehensive genome-wide analysis of essential genes involved in the development of the eye of the fly Drosophila melonagaster (Chen et al ,2005).The course, although primarily laboratory focused, included interactive lectures on background materials and basic concepts of genetics, as well as computer section during which students conducted experiments in a virtual fly lab to help them better understand the genetic crosses done in the laboratory section. In the laboratory the students perfomed five-generation Drosophila crosses to determine the effect of homozygous mutations of the target genes on the eye development. Each student worked on ten individual mutant stocks .Although the individual student’s contribution represented only a minor fraction of the overall project, it was only the participation of many students that made this impressive functional genomics screen possible-the 264 undergraduate students who authored the final paper had performed at least 150,000 independent Drosophila crosses over a 3-5 year period (Call et al., 2007) Intellectual Development According to Perry (1970) there exist nine phases related to intellectual development, where students move from fundamental duality via complex duality. This move is aimed at relativism and dedication to relativism. In their search for knowledge students start from a point where knowledge is perceived as certain to a point where it becomes uncertain as well as contested. Perry further argues that the already graduated students ought to have uppermost developmental level as far as contextual relativism is concerned and they ought to reason like experts. This method (inquiry based learning) is very crucial for the development process of students as it presents a means which is crucial for students in transforming dualism where they have the capacity to question knowledge through contextual relativism as they improve their critical thinking abilities. Approaches to Learning In the recent past many researchers have made an effort to examine the learning process under the inquiry based learning. Saljo (1979) a researcher from Sweden as Ramsden reports tried to carry out a survey on adults through an interview to sample out their views on inquiry-based learning and successfully came out with five categories which he further arranged in a hierarchical order. At the bottom were what he termed as ‘surface approaches’ which included acquiring of information, learning while memorizing (retrieval of already stored information),learning through acquisition of facts which can stored in the human memory and retrieved when necessary, learning by combining different parts of subject matter into a single phenomenon and relating them to the real world and finally learning by interpreting reality and understanding it in another perspective which he termed as ‘deep approaches’. Similarly Ramsden (2003) supported higher order of deep approaches which should be adopted by students in institutions of higher learning (universities). He further argued that teachers should also adopt deep approach methods to learning through designing structures relevant to the topic covered in class while teaching which involves challenging students by giving them questions and examining their mode of responding to questions to enhance their problem solving techniques rather than teaching facts (Bateman,1990). Rather than concentrating on what students know inquiry based learning involves devising new methods where student are curious to know what they don’t know which is a more rigorous process in quest for knowledge and that matches learning outcomes (Biggs, 2003).Therefore effective implementation of inquiry-based learning coupled with its construction can lead to constructive development regarding deep approaches methods to learning. Cycle-Based Teaching Research based on learning cycles is another inseparable part from inquiry –based learning. A notable model brought forward by Kolb’s (1984) knows as experimental model is basically applied in institutions of higher learning. Kolb relied on earlier works done by Dewey and Lewin and came with a four stage model that involved; real experience, deep observation, abstract conceptualization and active experimentation. He further argues that learners can start with any stage but order ought to be maintained in a sequence (Bateman, 1990). He puts emphasis on the reflection that forms the basis of understanding which is the most important trait in learning. He also outlines various styles such as; converters, divergers and assimilators that are accredited with are based on various characteristics where the aspects of inquiry-based learning are accommodated in each category (Woods, 1994). Accommodators are classified as the group that is most comfortable as far as experimental approaches are concerned as put across by Healey (2005). Teachers are thereby urged to incorporate the analyzed four stages regarding the learning cycle which is very crucial in the development of a couple of learning styles important in shaping the students in their careers to become good professionals. Healey suggests that teachers ought to offer necessary support while using inquiry-based techniques in order to encourage students to adopt it since most of them may tend to disregard it (Healey, M.2005a). Strengthening Teaching-Research Links Many proponents of inquiry based learning has challenged the teaching fraternity due to lack of engaging undergraduate students through research as pointed out by Ernest Boyer which is regarded as genuine and effective mode of learning(Fasko,2003). Since then literature has been seen to emerge that takes a cross-examines Boyer’s work that suggests on restructuring of approach to teaching and learning techniques that will incorporate research and thus the inquiry based-learning have been advocated (Boyer Commission,1999), others included; (Kreber,2006) ;(Jenkins,2007); (Badley, 2002); (Rowland,2000 );(Smith,2007) plus many more others who considers the link as the most useful that will help strengthen the bond ‘’between research and learning through the crucial academic process of inquiry’’. Alternatively, Justice et al. (2007a) expounds that the inquiry-based is an approach based on process through seeking knowledge as well as new understanding. They thereby argue that the inquiry-based learning cannot be detached from research as teachers as well as the students are ‘’compatriots in the search for knowledge.’’ Healey (2005b:69) made links relating to traits of teaching based on Griffith’s (2004) research –teaching nexus classification and argued whether; ‘’the students are treated as audience or participants, the teaching is student-focused or teacher-focused, and if the emphasis is on research content or research process and problems.’’. Brew (2003) comes up with an argument that compels implementation of inquiry based learning touching on the literature according to teaching –research nexus as the notion that ‘’tertiary teaching and learning should occur in communities of inquiry where students and teachers are co-learners’’. He further argues that there should be accessibility of those communities of inquiry to university undergraduate students and just not for the elite institutions in the community and the high achievers (Tan, 2003). Evaluation of Inquiry-based Learning As noted by Justice et al. (2007), there is need for under-evaluation as far as innovations regarding higher education are concerned. Some literature lacks the basics of inquiry-based learning activities which involves engagement of both the teachers and the students in the teaching and learning process. However there exists some literature in this approach being presented as merely descriptive (Blumberg, 2000). Much literature does not explore what should really be covered under inquiry- based learning. However there have been several evaluative studies that have occurred in school curriculum and efforts to introduce the project –based learning in the literature of medicine. As provided by Prince and Felder (2006) during their four study overview in evaluating inquiry based learning from; (Haury ,1993; Smith,1996;Shymansky, 1990; and Rubin, 1996), their research comes up with a conclusion that the inquiry-based learning technique is effective and better by far as compared to traditional mode of teaching. Inquiry based learning is more engaging and practical which enhances students perception, decision making process, critical and creative thinking and problem solving techniques. Some studies have also compared the inquiry-based learning and traditional method and compared their learning outcomes. Berg et al. (2003) did a comparison of the learning outcome of an open-inquiry with an expository version during a first year chemistry laboratory experiment. Data was obtained through self evaluation and interview questions. The key findings however showed that the students on open inquiry program had more understanding, greatly motivated and obtained more positive results as compared to the other student on expository experiment (Kennedy, and Davis, 2004). Conclusion Inquiry-based learning is one of the most appropriate approach to teaching and learning which engages the students in the knowledge creation process (Abell,S.2005). Its major attributes includes inquiry stimulated learning where the students participates actively in learning through doing their own research enabling them to have a range of skills which enables them to have proper skills in decision making, problem solving and the ability to think in a critical and creative manner (Gibbs,1988). The role of the teacher in this approach to teaching is to provide guidance and acts as a motivator and a facilitator. Constructivism, intellectual development, learning-cycle techniques and cognitive search forms the bases of inquiry-based learning (Ramsden, 2003). This approach to teaching and learning has been seen to produce results through integrating teaching and research. However this approach may raise caution as some students may not toe the line and may view inquiry-based techniques as not appropriate or uncomfortable to them hence the need to constantly motivate as well as give them the necessary support for them to have a positive attitude towards it. Recently there has been growing literature supporting the project-based learning at the expense of inquiry-based learning this call for evaluation of literature regarding this approach. Teachers should also be at the fore front and try to integrate teaching and research to produce better outcomes. References Abell, S. (2005). University science teachers as researchers: Blurring the scholarship boundaries. Research in Science Education, 35, 281-298. Alford, R. (1998).The Craft of Inquiry: Theories, Methods and Evidence. Newyork: Oxford .University Press. Bateman, W, (1990). Open to Question: The Art of Teaching and Learning by Inquiry. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Bateman, W. (1990). Open to Question: The Art of Teaching and Learning by Inquiry. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Biggs, J. (2003).Teaching For Quality Learning at University. Maidenhead, Berkshire: The Society for Research into Higher Education & Open University Press. Blumberg, B. (2000) “Evaluating the Evidence that Problem-Based Learners are Self-Directed Learners: A Review of the Literature,” in D.H. Evensen and C.E. Hmelo, eds., Problem-Based Learning: AResearch Perspective on Learning Interactions.Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Bransford, J. D. Brown, A. L., and Cocking, R. R., Ed. (2000). How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School. Washington: National Academy Press. Bruner, J. (1990). Acts of Meaning. Cambridge, Mass. Harvard: University Press. Dewey, J. (1933). How We Think: A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process. Boston: D.C. Heath. Elton, L. (2006). The nature of effective or exemplary teaching in an environment that emphasizes strong research and teaching links. In Kreber, C. (Ed.) Exploring Research-Based Teaching. New Directions for Teaching and Learning . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Fasko, D. (2003). “Case Studies and Method in Teaching and Learning,” presented at the Annual Meeting of the Society of Educators and Scholars:Louisville. Gibbs, G. (1988). Learning by Doing: A Guide to Teaching and Learning Methods. London: Further Education Unit. Healey, M. (2005a). Linking research and teaching to benefit student learning. Journal of Geography in Higher Education 2, 183-201. Healey, M. (2005b). Linking research and teaching: Exploring disciplinary spaces and the role of inquiry-based learning. Reshaping the University: New Relationships between Research, Scholarship and Teaching. R. Barnett. Maidenhead, Berkshire: Society for Research into Higher Education & Open University Press Kennedy, A., and Navey-Davis, S. (2004). Inquiry-guided learning and the foreign language classroom. In V. S. Lee (Ed.) Teaching and Learning through Inquiry: A Guidebook for Institutions and Instructors. Sterling: Virginia. Kreber, C. (Ed.) Exploring Research-Based Teaching. New Directions for Teaching and Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Lohman, M. (2002). “Cultivating Problem-Solving Skills through Problem-Based Approaches to Piaget, J. (1972). The Psychology of the Child. New York: Basic Books. Prince, M., (2004). Does Active Learning Work? A Review of the Research,” J. Engr. Education. Professional Development,” Human Resource Development Quarterly. Ramsden, P. (2003). Learning toTeach in Higher Education. London: Routledge. Rowland, S. (2000). The Enquiring University Teacher. Buckingham: Open University Press. Tan, O.S. (2003). Problem-Based Learning Innovation.Singapore: Thomson. Weaver, F. S., Ed. (1989). Promoting Inquiry in Undergraduate Learning. New Directions for Teaching and Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Inc. Woods, D.R. (1994). Problem-Based Learning: How to Gain the Most from PBL. Waterdown. ON: Donald. Read More