The Infants' Developmental Plateaus - Research Paper Example

 Physical, Cognitive, Social and Emotional Development of Pre-school Aged Children Abstract This paper summarizes the most significant issues regarding the physical, cognitive, emotional and social development of pre-school age children finding that this age group is undergoing constant significant re-evaluation of themselves in keeping with the momentous changes that are occurring in their inner and outer worlds. Introduction Human development involves continuous change beginning with conception and perhaps ending at death. Most human developmental processes evolve within predictable, well-defined guidelines. At certain foreseeable occasions in the developmental process, new and different abilities emerge that have no obvious originations from earlier developmental periods. These developmental plateaus represent a qualitative transformation in maturity. To assist the study of development, developmental tasks are characteristically divided into four primary domains: physical, cognitive, social, and emotional. This discussion defines these development domains then applies these definitions to those of pre-school age. Physical development refers to the growth of the body structure including muscles, bones and organs as well as comprising all motor and sensory development. Motor activity is dependent on muscle strength and coordination. Motor actions such as standing, sitting, and running involve the large muscles whereas speech, vision and the use of hands and fingers engage the smaller muscles of the body. Sensory development includes the five senses, sight, taste, touch, smell and hearing. “The coordination and integration of perceptual input from these systems are controlled by the central nervous system” (Roditti, 2002, p. 11). Cognitive development describes activities such as thought, memory, reasoning, problem-solving and abstract thinking. The use of language necessitates symbolization and memory and is one of the most difficult of cognitive activities. The term language does not mean the spoken word, however. Speaking is a motor activity. Therefore, language and speech are operated by different areas of the brain. Comprehending and expressing language is a complex cognitive endeavor. Social development includes the child’s interactions with other people and involvement in social groups. The earliest social function is the attachment to mother leading to the “development of relationships with adults and peers, assumption of social roles, adoption of group values and norms, adoption of a moral system, and eventually assuming a productive role in society are all social tasks” (Roditti, 2002, p. 12). Emotional development refers to the maturing of personal behaviors and characteristics including developing a self identity and esteem along with the ability to enter into mutual emotional relationships. Physical Development Sensory and motor domain development is most noticeable during the first year of life with physical growth beginning to slow at about one year of age. Parents may notice a decreased appetite at this time as they observe that their children seem to eat virtually nothing comparatively yet continue to grow and are healthy. As children begin to walk, their posture appears as if there may be cause for parental concern but the bow-legged child with their belly sticking out and inward curved back is quite normal for this age. Children are half grown already by the age of two. By doubling a 24 month-old’s height, a parent can accurately predict their child’s full height as an adult. By age three, the body becomes leaner as the child’s proportion of body fat decreases and muscles increase in tone. By this age, the vast majority of children are physically able to control their bodily functions. Most children follow a predictable pattern of physical growth. Visits to the doctor enable parents to monitor growth in relation to other children of similar age and also allows for comparisons of weight gain to height gain. During the preschool years, growth in height and weight is steady. The next major growth spurt occurs in early adolescence (Beers, 2003). Cognitive In the preschool years, from age two to seven, children start to reason, build concepts, and lay the foundation for tangible operations. “Operations are initialized sets of actions that allow the child to do mentally what was done physically before” (Santrock, 1997, p. 203). Operations also include “the process of classification, seriation, or reversability that generates logical thinking and understanding” (Boden, 1980, p. 41). The two sub-stages of preoperational thought are symbolic function and intuitive thought. The first sub-stage, symbolic function, takes place between the ages of two and four. During this period, the child attains the aptitude to mentally represent something not physically within their sight (Santrock, 1997, p. 203). Because egocentrism and animism play a part in this stage of the child’s development, their mental symbols are not entirely real or logical. Egocentrism, one of the characteristics of pre-operational is described as, “the child’s inability to distinguish between one's own perspective and someone else's perspective” (Santrock, 1997, p. 204). An example of this is a child who has learned the right and left sides of their body who cannot duplicate this feat on a person facing them (Pulaski & Spencer, 1980, p. 44). Children in this age range do not understand why noise making activities could increase their mother’s annoyance when they’re having such a good time. Animism, the child’s belief that things are alive or have human characteristics because they move or grow, is another characteristic of pre-operational thought that adds to the young child’s symbolic depictions. The two to four year old believes this because they reason that life corresponds to movement and growth. The child may express this by drawing flowers or by saying that the ‘chair was mad’ at him and made him fall after tripping over it. The second sub-stage of preoperational thought involves four to seven year-old’s development of the intuitive thought process. Children in this phase want to ask questions constantly. Although they are inclined to be so certain of their knowledge and understanding, they are unaware of how they gained their information. A child at this age focuses on one characteristic of someone or something, and bases their decision or judgment on that one characteristic. This characteristic is called centration. For example, “if a 4 year old was given some blocks and asked to put the blocks into groups in which he or she thought they belonged. A child at this age may focus his or her attention on the color instead of the shape, whereas an older individual may focus on both” (Santrock, 1997, p. 206). Social and Emotional Development A pre-school child’s social and emotional development is based on observations of behavior and temperament. Infants normally become more anxious about being separated from their parents at about nine months of age. Whether being put down at bedtime or dropped off at childcare, they may experience difficulties made noticeable by fits of temper. These separation tantrums may last for several months. For older pre-school aged children, a blanket or stuffed animal serves as a ‘transitional object’ that functions as a representation for the missing parent. From age 18 months to two years, children characteristically start to determine gender distinctiveness. During the preschool years, children also ascertain concepts of gender role, of how boys and girls typically act. Investigation of the genitals is expected at this age. This indicates that children are beginning to make a connection between gender and body image. A child begins to test parental limits merely to find out what would happen in the two to three age-range. Anyone that has known a two year-old has heard them loudly exclaim the word ‘no,’ and mean what they say as they strive for independence. Tantrums are typical among this age group. This release of emotion is simply children expressing their frustrations during a phase in their development when they cannot verbalize their feelings effectively. By not allowing the child to become overly tired or frustrated and by forecasting the child’s behavior, parents can reduce the number of tantrums. Children, of course, have differing and complex personalities. Some display difficulties controlling their urges and necessitate stricter behavioral limits and regularity in their activities. In this age group, between two and three years of age, children begin to be interactively involved with other children. Although they are possessive of toys, they may begin to share and even take turns in play. By declaring ownership over toys, the child helps establish the sense of self. The majority of children become interested in fantasy play and imaginary friends from three to five years of age. Fantasy play helps children develop socially as they resolve conflicts with parents or other children in ways that will help them expel frustrations while maintaining their self-esteem. Typical childhood fears appear at this time in social and emotional development i.e., ‘the monster in the closet.’ are universal and quite normal (Beers, 2003). Conclusion Pre-school aged child are experiencing dynamic changes to their physical, cognitive, social and emotional domains. Their perceptions of the world around them and of themselves are constantly being re-evaluated and built upon as they progress through differing stages of awareness and development. They are just learning how to navigate the world of the human and are continually entering a new phase of life with all new equipment and skills. There are times in the child’s life when it is vitally important that they have the time and support necessary to focus their concentration on the business of maturing. Toward that end, it is of great help to parents to understand these stages and how to most effectively guide their children through them. References Beers, Mark H. (April 2003). The Merck Manual of Medical Information. New York: Pocket Books. Boden, Margaret A. (1980). Jean Piaget. New York: The Viking Press. Pulaski, Ph.D., & Spencer, Mary Ann. (1980). Understanding Piaget, An Introduction to Children's Cognitive Development. New York: Harper and Row. Roditti, Martha. (June 2002). Human Development: Children, Youth and Adult Development and the Effects of Child Maltreatment on Human Development. Berkeley: University of California at Berkeley. Santrock, John W. (1997). Life-Span Development. (7th Ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill College. Read More