Systemic Professional Development and Its Effect on Novice Teachers - Dissertation Example

This literature review attempts to address the basic problem of new teacher attrition rates. Studies have found many different factors influencing teacher retention. The historical context for attrition rates was considered. It is determined that rather than being a new problem, teacher shortages because of attrition have been the subject of complaint for many years. This, however, does not make it any less urgent to find a solution. The proposed reasons for the high attrition rates were explored in this chapter. Studies have found many different factors influencing teacher retention, including the social climate of the school, the attitudes of colleagues, and the amount of assistance from administration. The model of systematic professional development is also discussed vis-a-vis various parameters that influence teaching capabilities with significant impact on retention of novice teacher. Finally, possible remedies that have been suggested to date, with particular attention to mentorship, and systemic professional development were included in this review. To introduce newcomers to the professional culture of the school, induction and mentoring is often used, but with mixed success. For one thing, the time the assistance is offered is usually quite short, and often, if not always, the teacher is expected to be carrying an almost-full or full load. When compared with effective systemic professional development, induction and mentoring do not seem to be as successful. In the following section, the case study research methodology design will be established as a viable way to conduct a qualitative study. The specific qualitative research approach adopted for this study will be explored in complete detail. Keywords: systematic professional development, K-12 education, retention/ attrition Section 2: Literature Review Introduction The study addresses the problem of low rate of retention among new teachers in the K-12 education system of the United States. The purpose of this study is to identify effective systemic professional development learning opportunities, if any, which aid in the retention of apprentice teachers in the teaching profession. The focus will be in answering the sub question: Why systemic professional development learning opportunities are beneficial to novice teachers? Systemic professional development is one of several possible strategies to deal with low retention amongst novice teachers. It has been credited with success in supporting apprentice teachers (Kent, 2004; Langraf, 2004; Wong et al., 1998). However, its possible influence on new teacher attrition rates is less studied. Siedentop (2006) suggests, that “what is really missing is systematic evidence to support that the approaches being advocated (work); there is some evidence to support the different positions, but it is spotty at best, flawed at worst” (p. 14). The literature to be reviewed consists primarily of books and scholarly journals from the last 15 years, though a few earlier studies are included to broaden the historical context. It concentrates on the situation in the United States, though studies of similar issues in Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, and Europe will be consulted. The material for the review was gathered by library catalog and electronic database searches, using keywords relevant to each of its topics. The bibliographies found in nearly all source materials were critical in locating and identifying relevant studies, and the studies themselves sometimes cited valuable content from works that remained inaccessible. The gathering of material thus proceeded in a series of waves, where the last items discovered provided information on what would be most useful to access next. Literature examined in this section is closely associated with the most pertinent work available to address teacher attrition rates. Due consideration is given to the influence, if any, of professional development on novice teacher attrition rates. Included in this review is an investigation of the following: historical perspective of new teacher attrition rates; proposed reasons for high attrition rates; and current remedies to address attrition rates including a proposed professional development focus to address attrition rates. The review begins by introducing sources that lay out the basic problem of new teacher attrition in historical context. Next, the review recapitulates discussions of the reasons proposed for the high attrition rate among teachers. Finally, it outlines the remedies that have been suggested to date, with particular attention to mentorship, probably the most popular solution but an elusive and ill-defined concept when examined closely, and the Missouri Reading Initiative systemic professional development focus, which seems to offer the best hopes of remedying the situation in an efficient manner. Teacher Attrition: The Scope and Importance of the Issue Viewed from a historical perspective, teacher attrition is not a new problem. This researcher thought it relevant to lay out the problem of new teacher attrition from a historical perspective in an attempt to elucidate the urgency of this situation. Its effects have been discussed for decades. A review of literature by McGunn (1957) indicated that school boards felt teacher attrition was a problem of critical importance (as cited in Hill & Barth, 2004, p. 173). At that time, the attrition rate was given at about 40%. Subsequently, in the early 1990s, the 5 year attrition rate was estimated at one third to one half (Hope, 1999, cited in Merseth, 1992). It is important to note the high attrition rate has been a constant and a chronic problem. At the same time, it also suggests that it is apparently not related to anything specific in contemporary society or modern innovations. The present rate of teacher attrition in the United States is commonly spoken of in a forceful, sometimes almost apocalyptic fashion: "an urgent challenge" (Mihans, 2008, p. 762); "massive...a crisis" (Watlington et al., 2004, p. 63); "too many...are leaving" (Johnson, 2001, p. 44); "set [new teachers] up to fail (Gagen et al., 2005, p. 41). Similarly in a dramatic phrase, Hope (1999) stated, that the attrition rate among new teachers was sufficient warrant to label teaching "the profession that 'eats its young'" (p. 55). According to these accounts, this "constant churn" "drains resources, diminishes teaching quality, and undermines our ability to close the student achievement gap" (NCTAF, 2007, p. 89), "reducing the quality of students' educations" (Grissmer & Kirby, 1997; Watlington et al., 2004, p. 63). Attrition is also credited with imposing a substantial additional financial burden at a time when resources are diminishing, affecting education across the board (Brooks-Young, 2007, pp. 44-47; Feng, 2009, p. 1165). Specifically, Greenlee and Brown (2009) go on to the extent of stating that attrition is costing the state of Texas alone $329 million per year (as cited Darling-Hammond, 2003, p. 96-97). At first glance, these figures may seem quite threatening. However, teacher attrition rate can be hard to judge. Each district may face a similar attrition dilemma; although it may manifest itself with a different definition of attrition. A teacher lost to one school is not necessarily lost to the field of education forever. He or she may simply have transferred to another school, or have been temporarily removed from the teaching workforce by family concerns, further training, or a sabbatical (Adams & Dial, 1994, p. 358; Greenlee & Brown, 2009, p. 97). Nevertheless, from the standpoint of the individual school, the effect is much the same: a vacancy that will take time, trouble, and expense to fill (Hahs-Vaughn & Scherff, 2008, 23). So what is the current attrition rate among teachers? The figures given vary to some degree. Ingersol et al., (2003) claim that 46% of new teachers leave in their first five years (p. 31). A review of literature by Grenier and Smith (2006) suggests that during the first 3 years of teaching (as cited by Rosenow , 2005, p. 653) scrutinize attrition rates to a single-year attrition rate for teachers, at around 9% leaving the profession annually (with 4% to taking jobs outside of teaching). This rate is about 50% higher than the average industrial attrition rate of 6%, but much lower than in a number of specific fields (Teacher Attrition, 2008). Some subject specific studies have come up with lower figures. For instance, the attrition rate for music teachers was found by Hancock (2009) to be 6% yearly. Although, a third of the teachers in the review who left contemplated they would be back within 5 years, and another quarter anticipated to return in 5 or more years, the problem is less an acute illness than a chronic condition. Steele offers, that “teacher turnover is high in schools that serve large shares of poor or nonwhite students because the work is difficult, and the teachers who undertake it are often the least equipped to succeed” (2007, p. 15). The literature did not provide follow-up documentation to these suggested returns to the profession. Consequently, teacher attrition rates still generate expenses and reduce efficiency, and should be reduced as far as practically possible. The previous researches tend to position itself on the treacherous background of uncertainties and ambiguous outcome of if and when. While they highlight many aspects of the subject interests, they nevertheless, irrevocably acknowledge its significance in the broader framework of commitment of teachers to the profession. This research study is primarily designed to study one practical and viable way of reaching this goal with systemic professional development. Why Do Beginning Teachers Leave the Profession? Entering any profession entails a commitment of time and money that constitutes a deterrent against departure. Why, then, do teachers endure the pressures and expenses of their professional training only to pull up stakes and leave, some in their very first year of teaching? Answering this question is basic to the research aims of this theory, since if the cause of the problem remains obscure, it will be all the more difficult to remedy. One would think that those who dropped out early would be the weakest and least promising of the group of new teachers. Unexpectedly, however, this is not necessarily the case. Thirty years ago, Schlechty and Vance (1981, 1982) noted a relationship between the purely academic ability of a teacher and his or her chances of dropping out of teaching, with the greater the ability, the higher the chance of leaving (cited Adams & Dial, 1994, p. 358-359). This phenomenon has been noticed repeatedly since. For instance, Hancock (2005), writing about music teachers, finds that a high level of performance in undergraduate training does not predict how long a teacher will last in the field, and comes to an interesting conclusion: "....the variables that most influence beginning teacher attrition may not include overt undergraduate performance at all, and instead rely primarily on events that occur during in-service teaching." This is supported by the findings of Watlinger et al. (2004, p. 56) and Grenier and Smith (2006), who discovered that state teacher certification examinations do not reliably indicate which teachers will remain (p. 657). Intriguingly, Adams and Dial (1994) came to what seems at first an opposite conclusion: after controlling for gender, age, and race, they were able to determine that teachers with a graduate degree were significantly less likely to quit than those with a bachelor's degree (pp. 352-363). As we shall see later, this is only superficially a contradiction, and instead points directly at where the heart of the problem lies. Understanding the expectations of novice teachers from the profession essentially provides the insight into the psychology of the person and his priorities in his professional life. Various aspects of expectations of teachers need to be correlated with the scope of systematic professional development and linkages developed to create an environment of facilitation. Higher salary, social status, criteria of job satisfaction including school atmosphere and working hours etc. deem to become crucial elements of retention. Interestingly, while expectations from the professional become important issues for teachers, the lack of research in how the teachers want to be perceived by students leaves a significant gap in the study. Students are intrinsic part of teaching and there expectations from the teachers must be incorporated to make teaching not only effective but also interesting for students. Hence, training schedule that takes into considerations the viewpoints of students would invariably improve the competencies of teachers and make them more effective. The first consideration that is likely to come to mind when faced with a high attrition rate in any occupation is salary: are people leaving simply because they are not being paid enough? This reason comes up particularly in studies done during the 1990s, as reported in Certo and Fox (2002). Remuneration for teaching can certainly be less than for other fields that require similar qualifications: Mihans (2008) noted that beginning teachers earn about 12% less per week than in similar private sector positions, with math and science teachers in an even weaker position (p. 763). Remarkably, Certo and Fox (2002) noted that while teachers rated salary as a big influence when interviewed, relatively few of the group they studied left because of salary concerns. Interestingly, money is also relatively ineffective as an incentive to retain teachers. Paying teachers more can persuade them to stay in challenging situations, but the amount of incentive that is needed to make a difference, a 20% to 50% raise in salary, is considerable large. Smaller amounts than this do not seem to be effective (Greenlee and Brown, 2009, p. 99). Ironically, higher salaries as compared with surrounding districts seem to increase the attrition rate among teachers (Imezaki, 2005, cited in Hahs-Vaughn & Scherff, 2008, p. 23). It appeared that many, if not most, of the people who become involved in teaching are less troubled with the monetary aspect of their employment than those in other fields. It has been argued that working conditions are more important to a teacher considering leaving the profession than are salary rates (Allen, 2002, p. 10; Watlington et al., 2004, p. 57). Incredibly, one way in which the particular working conditions peculiar to teaching work directly against retention of initiates to the field is that beginning teachers are expected to immediately perform at the level of their more advanced peers (Cherubini, 2007, p. 1; Hill & Barth, 2004, 175-176). Other concerns are more general: the way in which staff members relate to each other, their interaction with the school principal and administrators, and the general expectations for student behavior, which can all be gathered together under the category of the culture of the school. The most important influence on school culture is the local administration centered in the principal's office, and so it is no wonder that poor administration and leadership are prominent in the reasons given by teachers for leaving the school, or the profession. Highlighted in a study by Certo and Fox (2002), the main reason teachers leave the teaching profession was listed as the lack of support from the school administration. Gardner (2010) supported this among music teachers, identifying the level of administrative support as the most important factor in increasing teacher satisfaction and retention rates. A review of the following literature: Chapman (1986), Hope (1999), Minarik, Thornton, and Perreault (2003), Inman and Marlowe (2004), Mihans (2008), Kukla-Acevedo (2009), and Greenlie and Brown (2009) revealed a broad agreement on the importance of the role of the administration and principal in creating a positive atmosphere of support for beginning teachers. Then Certo and Fox (2002) study also addressed, a focus on the climate itself without mentioning the administration when it cites "the strong presence of collegial relations" (2002) as a reason some teachers gave to keep on teaching. One is therefore forced to accept that interdisciplinary approach is important to investigate the low retention problem within the novice teachers. The objectives and goals of professional development module for teachers need to incorporate the differing view points of teachers and their expectations from the job criteria. The agenda of teachers in their different roles vary and therefore may necessitate wider framework of new schedules and eligibility criteria, evaluation and feedback system. But most importantly assessment technique for identifying critical competencies of novice teacher would ensure that the professional development is being imparted to the right candidate. The expectations of and from novice teachers are also vital ingredients that promote commitment and trust building with peer group. This is highly relevant because it helps create a facilitating environment for job satisfaction and need to be creative for higher levels of self actualization. The need to define prospective and retrospective responsibilities of teachers is critical part of training because it should allow wide perspective to the role and responsibility of teacher. The understanding equips the novice teacher with flexibility to adapt to the changes with more equanimity and gives him freedom to become more innovative in his role, whether as a classroom teacher, coordinator or as administrator within the school. The question now becomes, how is such a positive climate to be created by principals or other administrative staff? In other words, what keeps beginning teachers in their positions, in spite of the before mentioned struggles, especially during the difficult early years? Why Do Beginning Teachers Stay in the Profession? Reviewing factors that tend to reduce the attrition rate and retain teachers, in particularly the novice teachers, a common theme immediately becomes apparent, that of creating new image. The most praised and most successful approaches are all concerned, in one way or another, with constructing a continually evolving professional persona for the teacher. They link him or her into a dynamic support network that includes other teachers, school staff, parents, and society in general. The profession of teaching is not very kind to the loner. Unfortunately, as Ayers (1994) has pointed out, this identity as part of an interknit, supportive collectivity directly contradicts with the ingrained cultural stereotype of the superhero teacher: the heroic individual who battles school and society single-handedly to create a future for his or her students (as cited by Clayton, 2007, p. 260). This is why purely academic ability is so poor a predictor of success as a teacher, as Clayton showed in his in-depth ten-year study of three graduates from the same elementary school program. The most important factors identified as relevant to success or failure in his and others' studies were all social and collective, related to a sense of belonging with other teachers, the school, or the profession. Goodwin advocates that novice teachers should “never stop looking for new resources to enhance effectiveness as a teacher” (2005, p. 29).This is probably the explanation for the puzzle noted before, that those who have taken graduate programs are not more but less likely to drop out of teaching than those with only undergraduate qualifications: graduate study is a powerful catalyst towards forming a strong pedagogical identity and forging social and professional bonds with others in the field. It also gives credence to the fact that varying roles of teachers and their responsibilities are not constrained by the academic qualifications but by their ability to understand the deeper meanings of teacher student relationship. Thus, the motives of person taking up teaching profession become critical to his perceived image of a teacher. One can say that they also become the deciding factor in retention and reflect his prowess to remain in the profession for longer or shorter period. The profession is highly susceptible to human behavior and requires dedicated approach so that he can connect with the students to develop more meaningful relationship. The effectiveness of systematic model of professional development would become viable only if the person has inherent aptitude towards teaching and is able to meet the challenges of diverse society. Indeed, these aspects of the teaching profession need to be explored for developing better and more efficient curricula of professional development training schedule. The conclusion that the social and collective dimension is the vital one that has been reached many times now, with only minor variations (Johnson, 2001, p. 44; Kardos et al. 2001; Watlinger et al., 2004, p. 57, in addition to the studies cited above). Networking, involvement, engagement, and support: these are what predict survival and success in teaching (Edge & Mylopoulos, 2008). The design of the teacher training program may facilitate or impede these goals: For instance, longer training programs improve retention, but lack of student teaching experience doubles the rate of attrition (Hill & Barth, 2004, 174-175). Professional development training is a specialty based training schedule where the target are adult and matures teachers who may be in the profession for myriad reasons. While the experience and long tenure may not always reflect the person’s compulsions to remain in the profession, teaching abilities, competencies, especially emotional competency which affect one’s social responses to produce outcome that may or may not promote positive relationship building process. The real motive behind being a teacher adds value to his commitment to the profession and opens wide scope of opportunities to improve and improvise his skills for optimal outcome vis-a-vis students learning. At this juncture, the various means of personal and professional development tools lend efficacy to the program but also ensure its success. The wider imperatives of the demands of teaching profession become easy to handle because his commitment and his desire to make a positive change in the society. The fundamental goals of systematic professional development are focused on improving the existing skills and promoting new competencies to facilitate changes and become creative. In fact, developing creativity amongst the novice teachers is important because it provides them with the freedom to experiment without fear of adverse repercussion. Creativity is highly relevant in the teaching profession because teachers routinely interact with students and need to come up with creative solutions to the classroom problems which would stimulate the imagination of the children. Researches show that classroom innovation is most important aspect of teaching and forces students to think laterally. The process is not only desirable for positive learning outcome but also to resolve real life problems and for identifying core issues. The precept and concept of teaching is redefined through creative inputs and considerably influences the learning abilities of students. Development of leadership initiatives Development of educational leadership is probably one of the most critical requirements of teaching professionals. It not only helps retain good teachers but also provides them with greater incentive to use their creative input. Palus and Horth (2003) strongly believe that leadership training must be incorporated within the modules of professional development and needs to focus on how they can effectively deliver measurable goals and raise the standard of education. The program of ‘Future Leader’ by UK government is an exemplary example of dynamic initiative for creating a talent pool of teachers. Though it is intended to fill in the vacancies for head teachers and senior staff, its wider objective of promoting retention is important aspect which would be explored in my research. The perspective promotes development of new culture based on relationship building and mutual respect. For new teachers, insufficient preparation and professional development can create or reinforce a dysfunctional school culture (Sargent, 2003, cited Watlington et al., 2004, p. 57). Nevertheless, even in cases where preparation and development have been lacking or insufficient during training, they can be supplied or supplemented by measures taken during the initial exposure of the apprentice teacher to his or her vocation, through mentoring and/or professional development. Studying the effectiveness of one of these methods, systemic professional development, is the chief research aim of this dissertation. Still, two other related methods will be briefly reviewed before this, with a draft of their strengths and weaknesses: induction programs and mentoring. Induction Programs and Mentoring Teacher induction is a somewhat weakly defined term referring to the extra help given apprentice teachers during their first years, with the object, among other things, of making them a part of the professional culture (Cherubini, 2007, p. 2). Induction programs are highly variable, with an equal variation in the results (Hahs-Vaughn and Scherff, 2008, p. 25). They often suffer from an orientation towards technical skills useable in the classroom, explicitly offered as survival necessities (Clayton, 2007, p. 216). As Fulton and Goldenberg (2005) point out, "Constraints of funding, time, and distance restrict face-to-face interaction, thwarting communication, collaboration, and access to resources. Reliance on one-on-one, face-to-face interactions limits opportunities..." (p. 298). Moreover, with so many other demands on their time, both mentor and new teachers find it difficult to spend adequate time together (Fulton & Goldberg, 2005, p. 298). In comparison to the United States, many foreign countries devote a regular proportion of the teacher's time to professional development or work with other teachers, allowing teachers an opportunity to propose successful methods to colleagues and newcomers. One main reason for this difference is that while in the US, a little bit over half of education spending is at the classroom level; in other countries this proportion is closer to three-quarters. Classroom teachers also take up a much larger percentage of education workers in other countries as compared to the United States (p. 240). One thing is clear: mentoring conceived of as a limited effort, without dedication, will probably fail. Oliver (2009) addressed some of the different ideas of mentoring and comes to the general logical conclusion that the more components the mentoring program has, the more likely it will impact the attrition rate (p. 10). Fulton et al. (2005) underlines the need for an unremitting effort in mentoring, noting critically that "Most mentoring and induction programs support teachers during their first year of teaching only" (p. 298). Regrettably, the ultimate result often remains the same even after school districts strive to “make an effort to support new teachers, solo practice and new teacher isolation still prevail” (Fulton et al., 2005, p. 298). Professional Development: Effective Systemic Professional Development Lastly, this researcher deliberated over literature to report on research-based systemic professional development learning opportunities. Professional development suggests a wide range of support for teachers including personal as well as professional career advancement learning opportunities. The term can prompt visions of a variety of structured settings. These research-based publications addressed in this review include but are not limited to: The General Teaching Council (2003), The National Staff Development Council (2002), and the Missouri Reading Initiative (1998, 2002). The General Teaching Council (2003) recommends, as part of the professional learning framework, utilizing a collegial approach to support apprentice teachers as they reflect on learning opportunities presented in school-based professional development settings. Throughout this cyclical professional development process, apprentice teachers experience ample opportunities to process their learning when they reflect, apply strategies, collaborate and are coached on instructional strategies. The National Staff Development Council (2002) has identified essential components of professional development. Among the standards was the assertion that, “Effective elementary school staff development programs require an evaluation process that is ongoing, includes multiple sources of information, and focuses on all levels of the organization (p. 27). But these programs lack measurable goals and provoke new research paradigms that can give wide scope of expanding goals for effective teaching and for creating conducive environment for teachers. Teachers’ profession is different primarily because it is focused on children who are vulnerable in their adapting habits and easily impressionable by the environment. They also tend to emulate their teachers. Hence, teachers need to inculcate traits and value based character that not commands respect from the students but also motivates them for higher performance outcome. The leadership initiatives of teachers greatly facilitate and empower students. The abilities and competencies of teachers become important factors in professional development which are either developed or exploited to improve their effectiveness as teacher. Interestingly, the broader picture of how and what the professional development should be like, has also emerged as vital issue. The perspective gives an insight into the varying view points of teacher and teaching aspects which would significantly impact the outcome of research. In an effort to meet the criteria recommended by the National Staff Development Council (Missouri Reading Initiative, 1998), the Missouri Reading Initiative was established. The National Staff Development Council (NSDC) platform was designed as a result of the National Reading Council Study (Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998) as well as research of the National Reading Panel (2002). The Missouri Reading Initiative systemic professional development model includes: on-site modeled best practice lessons, observation and feedback of teachers’ practice, structured facilitation for reflection on research-based best practice, as well as collaboration for program and curriculum reviews. The Missouri Reading Initiative has been in existence since 1998. In the last several years the program adopted a multi-method program accountability evaluation (Missouri Reading Initiative, 2003). The Missouri Reading Initiative (MRI) school participants, albeit, on the limitation of the state level, follow the recommendations of both the GTC and the NSDC as part of a systemic professional development program. As Hargreaves (2003) reminds us, “teachers, like other workers, cannot work and learn entirely alone or in separate training courses after school. No one teacher knows enough to cope or improve by himself or herself" (p. 225). Opportunities to discuss and reflect on learning strategies "from everyday practice such as planning and assessing for learning" (p. 6) is a part of the systemic professional development learning focus. In this type of professional development setting teachers are encouraged to problem solve to develop individual learning plans and career goals. (p. 6). Because the systemic professional learning process is school-based, there is the potential for teachers to participate in collegial collaboration and discussion on a consistent basis during grade-level or committee-level meetings. Furthermore, the structure of a systemic professional development program suggests apprentice teachers are afforded the prospect to not only dialogue about but reflect upon newly acquired techniques. Expected outcome with different research methodologies The research call for investigations into the literature on the expected outcome of systematic professional development on the retention of novice teachers The expected outcome of systematic professional development on the retention of novice teachers is something that is desired and needs to be investigated for wider ramifications. Indeed, the various perspectives and paradigms of training are impacted by the reforms within the school administration and their goals in the changing dynamics of society. Radical changes need to be introduced within teaching paradigm to make training effective and visionary. Indeed, the consequences of changes in perspectives to professional development is manifold but the long term vision of the same would yield more fruitful results, influencing retention and promoting good teaching practices. Hence, it is imperative to study the expected outcome vis-a-vis different research methodologies, especially action research, that emphasizes adaptation to changes and proactively uses them to deliver expected outcome. These investigations are necessary to compare and contrast the impact of methodologies to study the impact of systematic professional development on retention of teachers. It has become a chronic problem within the academia that needs to be looked from new perspectives of change management. The traditional model of training must be redefined to infuse new interests in the novice teachers. Sandholtz (2002) has come up with new tactical recommendations that are practical and take holistic view of training. Her model is interesting and needs to be explored for its expected outcome. References Adams, G.J. & Dial, M. (1994) The effects of education on teacher retention. Education 114(3), 358-363. Allen, M.A. (2002). Improving teacher preparation, recruitment, and retention. 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