Reviewing the List - Literature review Example

CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE By Name Course Instructor Institution City/State Date Table of Contents CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 1 Table of Contents 2 1.0 Introduction 3 2.0 Job Satisfaction 3 2.1 Two-factor theory 5 2.2 Affective Event Theory 5 2.3 Equity theory 6 3.0 Employee morale 7 4.0 Motivation 8 4.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs 9 4.2 Expectancy Theory 10 5.0 Decision Making 11 6.0 Change Management 12 7.0 Communication 14 8.0 Summary 16 References 17 Critical Review of the Literature 1.0 Introduction According to Khalil (2013, p.362) when workers are dissatisfied or de-motivated it results in redundant turnover and absenteeism. Besides that, effectiveness, job commitment, productivity, resourcefulness, and low employee turnover can be at Oman Oil Marketing Company SAOG achieved when employees are satisfied. As stated by Chandan (1999, p.216), worker morale has recently been studied extensively with the intention of determining characteristics of work related to either low or high worker morale. Still, in the present economic pressure climate as well as changing priorities at political level, Barnard and Stoll (2010, p.1) posits that organisational change has turned out to be more and more important. Change, however, as evidenced in Oman Oil Marketing Company SAOG case is a multifaceted process that may result in positive and negative outcomes and intrinsically it is imperative to analyse the existing literature so as to highlight the suitable change process. This section offers a critical review of the literature analysing the concepts used in Oman Oil Marketing Company SAOG’s business report. They will be divided into job satisfaction, employee morale, change management, decision making, as well as commutation. 2.0 Job Satisfaction According to Khalil (2013, p.362), job satisfaction is concerned with creating approving feelings with regard to the work setting or organisation that eventually results in more committed as well as involved workforce that believes in the organisational objectives and is also enthused to remain in the organisation. On the other hand, unfavourable feelings for the organisation or work setting as mentioned by Khalil (2013, p.362) result in job dissatisfaction. Basically, there are numerous factors such as working condition, recognition, personal life; job security, remuneration, employee and employer relationship, promotion policies, and so forth play a crucial part in making employees behave positively towards the organisation and work setting. As stated by Khalil (2013, p.363), job satisfaction can be defined as a work expectations measurement and not merely a general all-inclusive attitudinal expression. Job satisfaction concept is complex, and so numerous theories have been advanced in attempt to give details on the meaning of job satisfaction as well as how such theories may be utilised in order to improve the workers’ performance. As suggested by Dugguh and Ayaga (2014, p.11), job satisfaction can be described as a set of negative and positive dispositions that are learned as well as acquired through attitudes (either positive or negative) or experience. According to Dugguh and Ayaga (2014, p.12), there are numerous theories about job satisfaction that can be traced to employee performance. As mentioned above, favourable/unfavourable and positive/negative attitudes towards the job point out job satisfaction/dissatisfaction. Therefore, the satisfaction can be affective: a basic subjective construct demonstrating a general emotional feeling that employees could have on their job. Besides that, the satisfaction could be cognitive: more logical or objective assessment of numerous aspects of a job. Dugguh and Ayaga (2014, p.12) posit that cognitive job satisfaction fails to measure the degree of happiness or pleasure arising from certain facets of the job, but instead assesses the level to which the facets of a job are viewed by the employee to be satisfactory as compared to employees’ set objectives. Basically, affective job satisfaction and cognitive job satisfaction are different since they have differing consequences as well as antecedents, even though the latter can assist in bringing about affective job satisfaction. 2.1 Two-factor theory Job satisfaction is discussed in the two-factor theory, which seeks to stress the motivator-hygiene factors required to illuminate motivation and job satisfaction within the organisation. Herzberg theory concentrates on the outcomes of dissatisfaction as well as satisfaction. According to the theory, particular job aspects result in satisfaction and as a result, motivation, but particular aspects bring about job dissatisfaction. Therefore, Herzberg expounded that the factors resulting in job dissatisfaction or satisfaction are not similar. According to this theory, job satisfaction as well as dissatisfaction is an outcome of distinct factors; that is, motivation and hygiene in that order. As mentioned be Kondalkar (2010, p.269), motivation is the inward force driving employees to realise organisational and individual goals. Therefore, motivational factors may be described as job aspects, which make workers, desire to perform as well as offer them with satisfaction. On the other hand, hygiene factors consist of working environment aspects such as interpersonal matters, working conditions, policies of the organisation and so forth. For this reason, and based on two-factor theory, Dugguh and Ayaga (2014, p.12) claim that factors associated with job satisfaction are known motivators or satisfiers, and they are the main contributing factors to job satisfaction. 2.2 Affective Event Theory As indicated by Dugguh and Ayaga (2014, p.13), the affective event theory seeks to explain how moods as well as emotions have an effect on job satisfaction. This theory give details of the connections between workers’ internal influences (such as mental states, emotions, and cognitions) as well as their responses to incidents taking place in their workplace that have an effect on their job satisfaction, organisational commitment, and performance. Affective event theory further suggests that emotional work behaviours are exhibited by employee emotions and mood, while job satisfaction is best predicted by cognitive-based behaviours. Besides that, the theory stressed that both positive- and negative-inducing affective instances are different and their psychological impact on employees’ job satisfaction is significant. This led to long-lasting external and internal emotional reactions demonstrated through organisational commitment, job satisfaction as well as job performance. In their study, Robbins (2009, p.209) found out that there are numerous factors that influence affective event theory such as agreeableness, consciousness, openness to experience, neuroticism, as well as extraversion. Besides that, they established that performance feedback positively impact employee affect, so company should carry out regular reviews performance feedback offered by managers have an effect on worker job satisfaction as well as performance. 2.3 Equity theory As stated by Dugguh and Ayaga (2014, p.14), equity theory exhibits how a worker perceives equality based on social relationships and have a significant impact on job satisfaction. According to this theory, an individual during a social exchange finds the level of input achieved from the relationship in comparison to the output, and also the effort puts forth by another person. Citing Adam theory, Aswathappa (2005, p.275) point out that when a worker perceives an inequity between individuals or two social groups, the worker can become dissatisfied or distressed for the reason that the input and the output are unequal. The inputs according to Dugguh and Ayaga (2014, p.14) include the quantity and quality of the contributions made by the employees to their work. So, inputs can encompass commitment, effort, time, commitment, capacity, flexibility, broadmindedness, willpower, passion, trust, as well as skills while on the other hand, output consists of the positive and negative outcomes that the worker thinks has been incurred by a participant due to his/her relationship with another employee. So, outputs encompass admiration, job security, remuneration, worker benefits, overheads, acknowledgement, repute, responsibilities, as well as sense of praise and achievement. As mentioned by Adams (1963), when an employee perceives inequity, it instigates a negative reaction to them, possibly some tension equal to the level of inequity perceived. So it is due to this tension that a worker can behave in a manner that lessens the tension within him or her. 3.0 Employee morale As mentioned by Chandan (1999, p.216), worker morale has extensively been researched, which the intention of determining facets of work related to worker morale. As pointed out by Žulonaitė (2014, p.18), major areas of worker morale that has been studied extensively include remuneration, supervision, employee and employer relationship, and the job itself. While measuring worker morale, Žulonaitė (2014) utilised three factors: remuneration, orientation toward supervision, as well as workload. Dimitriades and Papalexandris (2011, p.145) define employee morale as perceptions of employees concerning efforts made as a team and directed towards accomplishing organisational. So, measure pursued in Žulonaitė (2014) study was rooted mainly in worker perceptions of positive energy, team spirit, passion as well as egotism within the organisation. Basically, employee morale significance has been stressed by a number of literature works, and they as well propose that changes in the organisation can as well be construed as a way of improving competitiveness as well as financial performance by restructuring, outsourcing and downsizing. Žulonaitė (2014) further state that the negative experiences for of workers remaining after restructuring, outsourcing or downsizing may hamper the process of change as well as reduce the benefits that were expected from the change. In consequence, it is imperative for organisations like Oman Oil Marketing Company SAOG to comprehend how occurring or upcoming or changes may result in negative reactions as well as ways to manage them so as to realise favourable outcomes. According to Fugate et al. (2012, p.892), structural changes normally lead to redundancies as well as demotions of numerous workers and even though, in a number of occasions cannot be avoided, other workers witnessing the effects always feel threatened. These feelings lead to worker withdrawal, for instance plans of looking for voluntary turnover, other employment opportunities, or non-attendance. As stated by Fugate et al. (2012, p.892), employee morale may be influenced heavily both during as well as after the process of restructuring, considering that change within the organisation leads to ambiguity and anxiety among workers. 4.0 Motivation Motivation as stated by Aworemi et al. (2011, p.227) signifies the inner forces of a person that influence his/her direction intensity, as well as persistence. In this regard, direction connotes the path through which individual’s effort is engaged. In Aworemi et al. (2011, p.227) assertion, the sense of effort direction reveals that employees decide where they concentrate their effort. That is to say, motivation is not random; rather it is goal-directed. Basically, employees are always motivated so as to be punctual or complete their tasks on time. Intensity as exhibited in Aworemi et al. (2011) study is another element of motivation, and may be described as the amount of effort assigned to a certain objective. For instance, three employees could be motivated to complete their project on time (direction), but merely two of them put forth sufficient effort (intensity) so as to realise this objective. So according to Aworemi et al. (2011, p.227) intensity is the level an employee push him/herself so as to finish a task. The final element of motivation according to Aworemi et al. (2011, p.227) is persistence, which connotes the enduring effort for a particular period of time. Normally, Workers maintain their efforts in anticipation of reaching their goals or part with beforehand. Scores of studies have developed around different motivational practices for guiding workers towards sought after goals, but still the management experience challenges in identifying as well as understanding the impact of different systems of motivation on group and individual behaviour in a particular organised work effort. According to Aworemi et al. (2011), the failure or success of motivation arises not from technique itself but from the ability of management to match employee needs with suitable rewards. As indicated by Salanova and Kirmanen (2012), motives are needs that compel individuals to move towards the set goals. A number of motivation studies have attempted to answer the ‘why’ of the employees’ behaviour that is focussed towards the individual and organisational goals as well as that goal’s need. So, motives have been defined by Aworemi et al. (2011, p.228) as wants, needs, drives, or desires in a person that focuses on the goals. Some decades ago, Freud established the significance of subconscious motivation, and so posited that employees are not at all times conscious of everything they desire. So, organisations should understand that workers are not solely motivated by money, but also by many other factors that are associated with their attitudes behaviour. 4.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs This theory is without doubt one of the best motivation theories across the globe, and it states that people are inclined to want something and that something desired relied on what they have already. For this reason, five different needs’ levels were proposed by Maslow through which they seek their basic needs satisfaction (Haque et al., 2014, p.63). The significance of this theory is rooted in the actuality that when the need of a person is satisfied, its strength reduces and so the next level strength starts increasing. According to Salanova and Kirmanen (2012, p.11), Maslow theory indicates that the needs of one level do not have to be fulfilled completely prior to the individual moving to the next level. So, an employee can be partly be satisfied with one level, but still search for satisfaction in the subsequent level. 4.2 Expectancy Theory According to Haque et al. (2014, p.65), the expectancy concept was first created by Vroom and it refers to likelihood that effort or action will result in an outcome. Basically, expectancy has been described as momentary belief regarding the possibility that a certain act is followed by a certain outcome. So, expectancies can be defined based on their strength such that maximal strength is pointed out by subjective certainty that an outcome will follow an act, whereas minimal strength according to Salanova and Kirmanen (2012, p.14) is shown by the subjective certainty that the outcome will not follow the act. In this regard, motivation is possible when a noticeably usable and perceived relationship happens between outcomes, wherein the outcome is considered as a way of fulfilling the employees’ needs. According to Vroom, the effort put forth by employees on the work is determined by two factors; the first factor is the rewards’ value to employees, as well as the level to which such rewards fulfil their needs for self-actualisation, social admiration, security, and independence. The other factor is the likelihood that the rewards rely on the effort, as believed by employees, their anticipations concerning association between rewards as well as effort. So, as mentioned by Haque et al. (2014, p.65), the bigger the awards’ set of value as well as the higher the likelihood of getting each of such rewards relies on effort. 5.0 Decision Making As mentioned in the first section, bad management decisions results in profits decrease in two ways: first, by failing to properly supervise the employees and secondly by failure to balance budget of the company. When workers experience bad management, they exhaust their working time to search for other employment, and so they fail to concentrate on achieving the organisational goals. This as a result, makes the company continue paying employees for a low output. So, decision theory as studied by Ahmed and Omotunde (2011, p.51) is the study of algorithms and principles use to make decision. This as stated by Ahmed and Omotunde (2011, p.51) is realised through identification of uncertainties, values, as well as other things that can have an effect on decision. In this case, decision theories have been categorised into two: Descriptive as well as normative decision theory. Descriptive theory according to Ahmed and Omotunde (2011, p.52) expounds how decisions are made while normative theory elucidates how decision must be made. Decision making theories may be observed through analysis of the procedure and approach to making a decision. In decision making there are two approaches: first approach is authoritarian where decisions are made by the team leaders or managers based on their experience and knowledge as well as communicate their decision to employees and expect their approval. The second approach is group, wherein decisions are made collectively through analysis of various alternatives fitting their goal. A number of studies according to Ahmed and Omotunde (2011, p.52) argue that in the authoritarian approach, the manager makes a decision in five minutes, takes half an hour to communicate the decision and an additional half an hour for the employees to accept whereas in the group approach, it takes half an hour to analyse as well decide the best alternative. For this reason, the group approach is suitable for companies since they group members are inclined to support decision that supports them. 6.0 Change Management As pointed out in the first section, implementing any change in the company is challenging and obviously is met with fierce resistance. Failure to communicate the need for change will obviously damage the process of change, and may result in resistance from either workers or managers. Basically, collaboration is important if situations allow, so enabling workers to feel the benefits of change prior to its full implementation is helpful in reducing resistance. According to Barnard and Stoll (2010, p.2), in the present environment of evolving political priorities as well as economic pressure, change within the organisation has become a must. Within the change management literature, Lewin’s planned approaches to change are the most influential perspectives, and according to Lewin, change entails a three phase process: first phase is unfreezing the present behaviour; then shifting to a new behaviour; and, last phase involves refreezing the new behaviour. This three-step paradigm has been espoused for many decades as the main framework to comprehend the organisational change process. The three step model according to Barnard and Stoll (2010, p.2) has been modified and reviewed severally since its formulation whereby phases have been divided further so as to make more specific steps. For instance, a four stage model was created by Bullock and Batten (1985), and it included four stages; exploration phase, planning phase, action phase as well as integration phase. In spite of its popularity, the original theory of Lewin has widely been critiqued for its small sample size and its hypothesis that organisations act under continual situations which may be considered and planned for. Due to these criticisms, a new organisational change planned approach acknowledged as ‘emergent approach’ was developed. In this approach, organisational change is seen as an unpredictable and fast change that cannot be managed through top down management. Rather, according to the approach, change must be considered as a learning process, where the organisation reacts to the external and internal changes with the working environment. As suggested by Barnard and Stoll (2010, p.3), this approach concentrates more on readiness to change as well as promoting change, as compared to offering certain pre-planned steps for all change initiatives as well as project. As stated by Barnard and Stoll (2010, p.3), acceptance of change by workers is the key success factor for any organisational change. In the work of Barnard and Stoll (2010, p.4), they argued that every person passes through five phases of grief (acceptance, anger, denial, depression and bargaining) when experiencing. This model according to Barnard and Stoll (2010, p.4) can be utilised to assist in guiding communication as well as support during the change period, and must be modified to the change stage reached by workers. For instance, immediately the change news is delivered, workers must be offered information so as to manage their denial. When the employees get the change news and become angry, they will need support through bargaining, and when they start accepting the change they will require vision so as to become committed to the change. Some scholars according to Barnard and Stoll (2010) have taken individualist approach in studying change resistance, pointing out that individuals’ reactions are exceedingly multifaceted and differ significantly. This thinking is supported by Shaul Oreg who argued that resistance to change is rooted both in the context through change takes place and personality. Oreg for this reason created and examined ‘Resistance to Change scale’. In his study, Oreg as mentioned by Barnard and Stoll (2010) noted a significant and positive relationship between Resistance to Change scale score of employees and their affective as well as behavioural resistance certain change in the organisation. According to Barnard and Stoll (2010), empowering to make change or involving them in the process has widely been mentioned in numerous literatures as a strategy to reduce change resistance amongst workers. Still, worker participation unaided is not adequate considering that managers are still playing an important part rewarding as well as encouraging innovation and showing support for the change process. Barnard and Stoll (2010) agree that employee participation in the change process is the best way to overcome resistance and must be evident in every phase of the change process. Citing Kotter and Schlesinger (1979) who suggested a more developing view to managing employee resistance, Barnard and Stoll (2010, p.4) posit that change circumstances as well as the change content do vary significantly between organisations and so this has to determine the suitable response. 7.0 Communication Communication as mentioned by McIntosh and Luecke (2008) is the modern business heart, therefore it very imperative as compared to other entrepreneurial skills. Currently, the business destiny relies on the quality of employer and employee relationship. The manager ability to communicate effectively helps both employees and customers trust him/her. McIntosh and Luecke (2008) posit that, internal communication these days more crucial since market ad business conditions have become more multifaceted. There are lots of information within the marketplace and so, it is imperative for workers to comprehend it. In this case, McIntosh and Luecke (2008) suggest the development of a strategy for strategic internal communication as well as its application can offer numerous advantages to the organisations, like keeping workers engaged as well as motivated, and sharing reliable, clear messages with workers. Importantly, internal communications must not be far-reaching so as to be valuable since the crucial factor is the unceasing information flow. Managers as proposed by McIntosh and Luecke (2008) should see their workers as the business’ public speakers, because whether they are communicating with customers or friends, they convey an impression of the company and its performance. So, when they are more informed, the successfully represent the organisation in the wider society. Moreover, organisation should mainly focus on personal relationship because regardless of its mission, size, or intention, organisation is simply a gathering of individuals pursuing a common goal. Therefore, company operates successfully through its workers, who consequently operate successfully through effective communication. Workers for this reason need outlets for their feelings as well as feelings. Therefore, managers should not randomly presume that when workers do not complain it means that they are satisfied. This is because; workers can communicate their dissatisfaction through other channels such as government agents, union representatives or through passive-antagonistic behaviour like inattentiveness, work slowdowns, lateness, absenteeism, as well as dispiritedness. Such can be indications that workers feel isolated and communication in the workplace is not effective. In communication, listening skills turns out to be very important, especially in upward communication. As mentioned by McIntosh and Luecke (2008), there are numerous channels that top management can utilise to communicate downward but such channels are few or non-existing for communication in the upward direction. Furthermore, skilled communicators can build rapport with business associates as well as workmates, which as a result, can assist in efficiently moving the projects along. Skilled communicators understand whose knowledge to tap when in need of help and are skilful in solving conflicts as well as creating agreement amongst members of the team. So, the managers’ success using the leadership attributes as well as the company strengths is improved by their ability to effectively communicate. 8.0 Summary In summary, it has been argued that Oman Oil Marketing Company SAOG managers must improve their management style and begin providing the desirable support and strategic direction so as to motivate their employees and teams. Basically, as argued above, bad management decisions are made because of overreliance on past experience, addiction to corporate politics, resources mismanagement, or lack clarity of purpose. Modern managers have to master the expertise of making decisions rationally, intuitively, as well as quickly, bearing in mind that these decisions’ value are affected by the manager's inherent biases, failure to change, as well as lack of feedback. As mentioned in the literature, attitudes are the main in behind job satisfaction, and they change into behaviour. In this case, the workers having positive attitudes are always satisfied. Open and on-going communication between workers and managers can assist managers keep their strategic goals clear, remain projects focused and be able to handle conflicts whenever they arise. When issues as well as expectations are talked about often by employees and managers in both informal and formal environments, then every worker will get clear understanding of work relationship status. To improve communication, top management must hold staff meetings often, so as to offer the managers and employees an opportunity to jointly talk over the issues associated with current business operations. Furthermore, most managers at the company isolate themselves from employees and some do not know how to associate with their employees professionally and individually. This result in bad communication, thus, leaving workers feeling separated from the company. Dissatisfaction makes workers uncertain about their position in the organisation, and so they work without a purpose for the company. References Ahmed, M.T. & Omotunde, H., 2011. Theories And Strategies of Good Decision Making. International Journal Of Scientific & Technology Research, vol. 1, no. 10, pp.51-54. 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